Shoes are one of the oldest accessories of human clothing. Its history dates back thousands of years. People started wearing shoes a long time ago, back in prehistoric times. At first, apparently, these were simply pieces of animal skins or skins with which our distant ancestors wrapped their legs, trying to protect them from cold and dampness, from bruises and cuts. Later, pieces of skins or skins began to be sewn together, giving them the shape of a leg.

In ancient Rus', people who made shoes were called usmoshvetsy: “usma” is the ancient Russian name for leather. Around the 11th century. the word "shoemaker" appeared.

Currently, sewing operations make up no more than a quarter of all operations in the manufacture of shoes, but according to tradition, shoe production is still called tailoring, and the main workshops of shoe factories are called sewing.

The shoes that you wear every day - boots, boots, shoes, slippers, sandals, etc. - are called household shoes. In addition, there are special shoes: industrial, sports, military, etc.

Different shoes cover the foot differently and have very different shapes.

Each type of shoe is assembled from a large number of parts. For example, a typical boot consists of 9 leather upper parts, 6 fabric lining parts and 9 lower parts.

Shoes should be durable, light, beautiful and, most importantly, comfortable.

First of all, the shoes must match the length of the foot. To do this, the length of the shoe should slightly exceed the length of the foot, and have a margin or allowance. After all, our foot easily supports the weight of our body because it has a springy, arched shape. When we walk or stand, the foot can lengthen up to 1.4 cm and expand up to 1.7 cm. Therefore, if there is no reserve in the shoe, the foot quickly gets tired when walking. The amount of reserve depends on the shape and purpose of the shoes. Thus, the stock of winter boots, which are usually worn on thick woolen socks, should be greater than that of slippers or sandals, which are worn in the summer with a thin stocking or sock, or even just on bare feet.

The length of the shoe is determined by the distance along the axis of the insole from the extreme point of the heel to the extreme point of the toe. This distance - shoe size - is measured in units, special units of length (one unit is equal to 2/3 cm). The shoe number is determined by the number of stitches. If, for example, the length of the insole is 36 lengths (24 cm), then the shoe is assigned the number 36. This system for determining shoe sizes was adopted in our Soviet Union. It is called stichmassova. But there are other systems: metric (a length of 1 cm is taken as a number), inch (a unit of length is taken as 1/3 of an English inch, i.e. 8.467 mm).

Footwear can be household (boots, shoes, sandals, etc.) and special (industrial, sports, military, etc.).

In the Soviet Union, shoes are manufactured from sizes 10 to 48. The smallest - from sizes 10 to 16 - is intended for babies who have just learned to walk, and is called “booties”, and from sizes 17 to 21 - “hussars”.

When choosing shoes, you should also take into account its fullness (height, girth), which is designated conventionally by a number corresponding to the size of the widest part of the foot. The fullness of shoes is determined according to tables obtained as a result of mass measurements of the feet of people of very different builds. The fullness number along with the length number is placed on the lining of the shoe and on its sole near the heel. Shoes of various sizes go on sale according to so-called sizes, i.e. with a certain percentage of different numbers in each batch.

Fabrics and wood, rubber and cardboard have long been used in the production of shoes along with leather. Recently, the shoe industry has widely used artificial materials produced synthetically in chemical factories and factories. These materials not only do not worsen, but often even improve the quality of shoes and at the same time make them much cheaper, since they are inexpensive.

Here are two pairs of beautiful women's shoes. Some of them are leather, others are made of artificial materials and cost 3 times less than the first, although they look no worse. What's the matter?

The history of these shoes is quite long. Their upper is made of synthetic rubber. This is a very cheap raw material. However, it was not so easy to obtain material from it suitable for the production of shoes. The fact is that the “skin” made of synthetic rubber did not allow air to pass through, and the foot in such shoes could not “breathe”. After a long search, a solution was found. Crushed potassium chloride was added to the rubber mixture, then the resulting mass was applied in a thin layer to the felt. After heat treatment, the “skin” was washed with water; potassium chloride dissolved in water, and many pores appeared on the “skin”.

What are the soles of these shoes made of? It's lighter than cork! Its specific gravity is only 0.1-0.2 g/cm², while that of leather is 1. The new microporous sole, currently produced in the USSR, is elastic and durable. The foot does not get tired when walking on such a sole. This happens because a special substance, a blowing agent, is introduced into the rubber mixture from which the sole is made. During the vulcanization of the material at high temperatures, it releases gas: expanding, this gas creates many tiny bubbles, thus forming “air rubber”.

Very high demands are placed on the material from which shoes are made. First of all, it is unacceptable for him to be harsh; After all, when worn, shoes constantly bend on the foot, and a person should not spend a lot of effort on this. In addition, the material must have the ability to stretch, otherwise shoes cannot be made from it. And, finally, it must well absorb the moisture released by the foot (and 0.5-1 G is released per hour) and release it to the external environment, i.e. evaporate.

Shoe manufacturing is divided into the following main operations: 1) cutting the material, 2) preparing parts for assembly, 3) assembling and fastening the workpiece (the workpiece is the upper of the shoe, sewn from individual parts), 4) molding the workpiece, 5) attaching the bottom parts to the workpiece and 6) finishing of finished shoes.

Shoe parts are cut out from basic materials (sheets of leather, cardboard, artificial leather, fabric) on special presses using cutters (knives). The steel blades of the cutters are made in the form of a contour closed in the shape of the part. The material is placed on the press base plate, the desired cutter is installed on it, then the press impact plate is lowered.

At first glance, cutting the material does not seem particularly difficult. In reality, it requires very high qualifications from the employee. The cutters must be placed on a piece of leather so that after cutting there are as few scraps as possible. The cost of the shoes depends on this.

The most important parts, for example vamps (a part of the upper of a shoe), are cut out from the central, stronger and thicker part of the leather, and the secondary ones are placed along the edges as close to one another as possible. In addition, each piece must be positioned in the direction in which the leather stretches (which, as you will see, is very important when shaping the workpiece). The difficulty also lies in the fact that from each leather it is necessary to cut out a strictly specified number of parts - a set.

When preparing shoe parts for assembly, mainly the edges of these parts are processed: they are cut off, painted, bent, etc. The soles and insoles are leveled in thickness and their surface is polished. Leather heels are assembled from individual plates and molded under high pressure in a press.

Hello my dear gentlemen, in this article I want to talk about the materials from which classic men's shoes are made and the technique of their manufacture, since this is a whole art, because making one pair can take several weeks and more than 200 operations.

Leatherette- the worst option, does not breathe, smells bad with intensive wear and causes problems with the dermis of the foot.

Cowhide- tough and wear-resistant. The cheapest of leathers. It takes a long time to wear out, and there are still noticeable creases on it. Does not get wet, good option for work boots or winter boots.

Cow's skin- softer than bullish. Most mass-market shoes are made from cow leather (Zara, Massimo, Dutti, Esco).

Calfskin- soft and durable. A great option for classic shoes and boots. There are different gradations, more on that later.

Cordovan leather- leather from the croup of a horse. Extremely wear-resistant, soft and unpretentious to use. Quite expensive. Shoes made from this leather rarely cost less than 500 euros.

Exotic skins- leather of ostrich (photo below), stingray, reptiles. They are mainly used to make designer shoes.

Leather varies according to the type of dressing

Smooth skin- mostly veal. Soft, wear-resistant, quite expensive. usually referred to as calf leather.

Polished leather(Polished leather) - the same smooth leather, but on which during the tanning process any defects, stretch marks, or minor scratches were discovered. In this case, it is processed and painted with paints with the addition of wax and other impurities, after which it is polished to give a pronounced gloss. This kind of skin turns out tougher. Typically, shoes made from polished leather cost a little less than those made from smooth leather by 25-35%.

Suede, nubuck- soft velvety leather, well breathable, produced by fat and formaldehyde-fat tanning, mainly from calf skins. Contrary to popular belief, it is quite wear-resistant if properly cared for. Not particularly formal shoes are made from suede: moccasins, boat shoes, chakkas, etc. Nubuck makes excellent winter and work shoes.

Polished leather- aka Patened leather. It is obtained by applying varnish or varnish film over the skin. Not durable, but resistant to stains. Patent leather shoes are usually worn only with a tuxedo or evening suit. It should not be worn at temperatures below -10 and above +25.

The sole can be attached in different ways: glued, vulcanized, sewn or sewn with glue.

Glued sole It is easier to manufacture and shoes made from it are more flexible and comfortable. If all technological standards are followed, it can be quite durable, but I did not recommend buying shoes with glued soles that cost more than 7-8 thousand rubles.

Stitched sole(welt method) - as the name implies, it is sewn to shoes. The most common method is Goodyear. The sole is attached using waxed threads. When stitched together, the wax melts and then hardens to seal the holes in the sole, preventing moisture from entering the shoe. Shoes sewn using the welt method cost from 8 thousand rubles to infinity. Even if the thread breaks or wears off somewhere, this will not affect the quality of the fastening. There are also different types of this method, for example, Storm Welt - a strip of leather is sewn over the welt along the boot for better protection from moisture. The Veldtschoen design is also interesting.

The soles themselves can also be made of different materials. Mainly leather, rubber, rubber and polyurethane.

The most formal is considered leather sole. But she is quite capricious. It is not recommended to wear shoes with such soles in rain or winter; our reagents and salt on the roads will instantly corrode them. Some recommend putting a prophylactic on such a sole, a thin rubber lining, but many manufacturers are against this, as they claim that prophylaxis can upset the balance of the shoe and the sole stops “breathing.” I believe that if you put in preventive maintenance, it is better to do it after at least a month of wear, and from a trusted specialist. By this time the sole will get used to the foot and take a certain shape. However, there are autumn shoes with leather soles, where they are thicker and retain heat better.

Polyurethane outsole- more wear-resistant, but less formal; the thinner the sole, the more formal the shoes look. Practically does not slip and retains heat well. Some of the best soles are those from Dainite and Vibram.

Crepe sole— made from natural rubber. Used in informal footwear such as chakka boots. It washes out quite quickly in city conditions, does not tolerate dirt and low temperatures, but is soft.

Inner shoe lining(Lining) - can be made of leatherette, leather, or rag (linen, thick cotton). The first option is extremely undesirable for the same reasons as leatherette shoes themselves. Linen lining is better for tapered shoes because it breathes better and allows heat to pass through. The best lining option for classic shoes is leather. Breathes and does not create unpleasant odors.

Fashionable winter shoes 2017

In 2017, fashion provides all kinds of models, colors and textures to choose from. The trend of the season is convenience and comfort, so the main selection criteria remain with the buyer; fashion this winter only indicates preferences. This season, boots of various shades will be popular - from black and blue to white and milky. The shape of the heel may vary, and models with tapered or round toes are also preferred.

Wedge boots are at the peak of popularity. This winter, fashion supports an unusual solution in the form of striped, snakeskin-covered or metallic heels, as well as heels with a wide variety of textures. Both low boots and knee-high boots, inspired by the fashion of the middle of the last century, are in demand today.

The range of colors cannot but delight the buyer - this season welcomes “warm” colors and shades of burgundy, as well as the classics - gray, black and blue. The platform or heel, as well as its shape, can be very diverse, high and low, thick or stiletto heels, here fashion does not set rigid boundaries. As for the shape of the sock, it can be oval, round or narrow.

Low boots in classic colors without heels or on platforms are the main trend of the season. They can have either a straight wide boot or an accordion. Ugg boots and high boots, as the most comfortable model, have been in fashion since last winter and still occupy store shelves. This winter, the style provides complete freedom of choice - color, shaft height and the presence or absence of fur are not dictated by fashion, you can choose the desired model according to your taste. It is important to remember that during the cold season you must have at least one pair of soft and warm shoes for relaxation.

How many names have already been invented to refer to artificial leather: artificial leather, leatherette, PVC leather and many others. Recently another new word has appeared - eco-leather. In essence, all of the listed words mean artificial leather, but it is interesting that there are still differences between artificial materials. Any artificial leather is a polymer film coating applied to a knitted, fabric or non-woven fabric. The most common film-forming polymer is polyvinyl chloride (PVC), the top layer of which is not breathable. PVC is found in vinyl seat upholstery in trains, buses, trams, cafes, clinics, kitchens, etc. The eco-leather film is formed by polyurethane. The mechanism of its chemical synthesis is much more complex than the synthesis of PVC. All the required properties are established precisely during the chemical synthesis of the polymer, therefore, no additives - plasticizers - are needed. During operation, nothing comes out of the polymer film, which is why the name appeared - ecological leather, or eco-leather. Genuine leather is animal skin that has undergone special processing. To make a product made from genuine leather, specialists first soak the hide to get rid of dirt, salt and fats, followed by a liming phase (dissolving the hair or weakening the connection between the hair and the dermis), then tanning and, finally, dyeing and chemical treatment.

Most people prefer any products made from genuine leather (leather bags, jackets, furniture) and if not for their high cost, they would buy them more willingly, since genuine leather is a fairly durable material that can withstand both very high and very high temperatures. low temperatures. Artificial leather is still associated with cheapness and fragility. But today, thanks to modern technologies, it is possible to produce high-quality artificial materials. Now they can no longer be compared with artificial leather, but with genuine leather. Eco-leather is a modern material created to ensure maximum comfort. Eco-leather is a high-tech material, “breathable” artificial leather without PVC. Air permeability was achieved due to the formation of micropores penetrating the film, so it allows air and water vapor to pass through, but does not allow water to pass through. The breathability of eco-leather is tens and sometimes hundreds of times higher than that of any, even very expensive, genuine leather. The fact is that in Russia, as well as throughout the world, full-grain furniture genuine leather in most cases has artificial embossing and is treated with acrylic emulsions, after which there can be no question of the breathability of natural leather. Due to such processing, the breathability properties are practically reduced to zero and furniture made from treated leather becomes less comfortable for humans. In professional circles, such skin is called “skin with a corrected face.” Leathers with a natural, “native” face (“merey”), without artificial embossing and artificial acrylic impregnations, are very expensive; they are called “leathers with aniline finishing” (i.e. they are only painted with aniline dyes). It is paradoxical that the consumer, not knowing these nuances, chooses skin with a corrected, but very beautiful face, without scars, pockmarks and other blemishes. “Aniline leather” accounts for less than 1% of the Russian market. Eco-leathers are superior to natural leathers in breathability, but are inferior to them in terms of hygroscopicity (absorption of moisture from the air). Polyurethane (PU) itself is a class of polymers with exceptionally high wear resistance (an example is heels) and frost resistance (down to -35 C). The presence of these properties is due to the high mobility of the spatial network of polyurethanes, their ability to undergo restructuring under the influence of mechanical influences or temperature changes. Polyurethanes are even capable of “self-healing” damage to the polymer network caused by deformation. These properties of polyurethanes are largely due to the fact that they contain “functional groups” of atoms that are unique to natural leather. Eco-leather is warm to the touch, just like natural leather. If you sit naked on a sofa upholstered in vinyl or natural leather, you will definitely sweat. If the sofa is upholstered in eco-leather, then sitting on it is almost as comfortable as if it were upholstered in furniture fabric. The thermal conductivity of both natural leather and eco-leather is almost the same. As for the organoleptic properties (i.e. how pleasant the material is to the touch), then, of course, genuine leather with aniline finishing is higher than most types of eco-leather. Corrected leathers feel quite comparable to eco-leathers. Eco-leather is a hypoallergenic material, unlike natural leather, which can cause allergenic reactions. Eco-leather is a modern synthetic high-tech material that must be treated with care, just like natural leather. When caring for eco-leather, like natural leather, it requires compliance with certain rules, which you can familiarize yourself with by taking a reminder from the seller. Conclusions: 1) Eco-leather consists of a polyurethane film, and genuine leather is made from animal skin. 2) The air permeability of eco-leather is higher than the air permeability of natural leather coated with acrylic emulsions, but lower than the air permeability of natural leather with aniline finishing. 3) Eco-leather, like natural leather, is wear-resistant and frost-resistant, and is also capable of “self-healing” deformations. 4) Both eco-leather and genuine leather are warm to the touch, but bare parts of the body will not sweat if you sit on eco-leather, unlike leather. 5) Eco-leather is more pleasant to feel than leather coated with acrylic emulsions, but less pleasant than expensive leather with aniline finishing. 6) Eco-leather is a hypoallergenic material, unlike natural leather, which can cause allergenic reactions. 7) Both eco-leather and natural leather must be treated with care. Both types of materials require approximately the same care.

The Russian company Ralf Ringer is already 17 years old. It has three of its own factories (in Moscow, Vladimir and Zaraysk), the largest distribution network in Russia (over 1,700 stores) and the largest production volume of men's shoes in the country. In total, she sold about 1.35 million pairs in 2012.

Shoe company Ralf Ringer

Location

Moscow city

opening date

1996

employees

3000 people

Annual turnover

2 billion rubles

Before production begins, future shoes go through a long journey. A team of brand managers, based on global fashion trends, market analysis and sales results of the previous collection, creates technical specifications. Based on it, fashion designers come up with a collection, which they show to the assortment department and company managers at the draft council. Next, models are selected that, in the general opinion, will be in demand on the market. For these models, a technological map and patterns are created, according to which the first samples are created in the experimental workshop. The completed collection is again shown to the expert council, which examines each style and model step by step, sends them to fashion designers for revision and approves the final assortment. Only now the collection is presented to buyers from various stores. The models they choose go into mass production.

The factory uses leather from four countries: from Russia - for rough men's boots, from Italy - for model classics, from Argentina - for semi-sports shoes, and from France comes highly selected raw materials, which are used in the production of the most expensive models.

The pads take into account the structural features of the Russian foot. Our shoes are wider and fuller than those of Europeans, so classic Italian shoes are often not suitable for our men. The width of the Russian foot can be not only a genetic feature, but also a consequence of orthopedic flat feet acquired in childhood from uncomfortable shoes.

In this workshop, parts of future boots are cut out. It is specially located on the first floor, because the presses for cutting out parts are very heavy - they simply could not withstand the ceiling.

This is how the insoles are cut. Each shoe (with rare exceptions, moccasins, for example, without a main insole), in order to maintain shape stability, must contain an insole made of shoe cellulose - a very dense, thick material. It, like the bones in the human body, creates the frame of the shoe.

On the table there are patterns tied with twine for a shoe of a certain style and size. Each such part is inserted into a cutter, which, under a press, cuts out the corresponding parts from the material.

This is a preparatory workshop where previously cut parts are processed. They are painted over, set on fire with a special blowtorch, bent, and marked with a silver pencil. Then comes the marking of the parts: on each shoe there is information about the type of shoe, color, size and lot number.

An important nuance when creating a boot is that it should not have pronounced scars or seams that could injure the leg. To prevent shoes from rubbing, the edges of some parts are ground down. To control the thickness of the skin, use a thickness gauge (pictured).

In the workshop where laser perforation is carried out, there is always a strong smell of burnt leather. According to the pattern specified by the program, the laser burns neat “holes” in the skin.

An automatic belt runs through the workshop, along which boxes of products travel. In order for the specialist to perform his operation, the master places the box on the tape, presses the number of the corresponding specialist on the remote control, and the box is sent to him. When the operation is completed, the specialist returns the box with the product to the master, and he forwards it to the next operator.

In this workshop, the main insoles are made, which are then attached to the upper blank, and then to the sole. The insole parts (main and heel) cut out on the first floor are glued together.

This machine makes a depression in the insole into which the arch support is then inserted.

The next steps involve shaping the boot. To do this, first, an insole made of shoe cellulose is nailed to the last with three nails. Then, in special machines, the toe and heel and shank parts of the shoe are tightened and glued onto the last. The white threads on the bobbin in the photo are polyurethane glue that heats up inside the machine.

The shoe passes through a special sauna, where it is subjected to moisture-heat treatment, as a result of which it finally takes the shape of a last. Then the workpiece is used to prepare the attachment to the sole: the drawing is washed off, the boot is pre-primed and polished, and the excess of the tightening edge is sanded using a coarse abrasive.

Next, the last is removed from the shoe, insoles are inserted into it, treated with cream, tinted with water-repellent paints, additionally sanded, and steamed with a special mini-iron, which straightens the inner toe. The shoes are also treated with carnauba wax, which is considered the most expensive material in shoe cosmetics. It is thanks to him that boots in stores look so sparkling.

To properly form the top of the shoe, special industrial laces are used on the last, which are finally replaced with regular ones.

The finished boot is then checked to ensure it matches the sample. If everything is good, they put a paper ball in it, wrap it and put it in boxes. The future collection is always presented in the showroom (pictured below) at the factory, as a sample.

More than 40 people work on each of our boots. As a rule, it contains from 40 to 60 parts, each operation is performed by a separate worker. In total, the factory produces about 3,000 pairs of shoes per day.

Animal leather (cow or pig) is most often used in shoe production. Textile fibers, such as cotton, and man-made fibers and leather, which have the same properties as natural fibers, are also used. Materials such as rubber and caoutchouc are used to make shoes that protect feet from rain and dampness.

Nowadays, many artificial elastic materials are known that have properties similar to natural textile fibers and animal skin.

What materials are houses made from?

Houses can be built from a variety of materials. Which one to choose depends on the place of residence, climate, habits and funds available to the builders.

The most commonly used materials are stone or brick, cement, iron, wood, ceramics, glass and some materials made from petroleum used as insulating materials.

What is soap?

This is a mass made from vegetable oils or animal fats with the addition of an alkaline product: caustic soda or potassium carbonate.

Soap dissolves in water and is used to remove dirt and grease.

Soap was invented many centuries ago, and its production was already known in Ancient Egypt and the ancient civilizations of the East.

What materials are used in the kitchen?

Items used in the kitchen are made from a wide variety of materials, such as metals such as steel, iron or aluminum. Motors and contacts of household electrical appliances are made of metals: refrigerators or freezers, washing machines, microwave ovens, stoves, etc. Plastic is usually used to produce appliance housings; the motor and various electrical parts are placed in it. Rubber is used to make seals and joints of parts, for drains, and glass is inserted into doors and windows.

What is glass made of?

Glass is the most commonly used material by humans. It is strong and heavy and difficult to cut, although it is easy to break as it is brittle, but the most important thing for its use is that glass is transparent.

Currently, glass is made from sand, calcium carbonate and limestone.

When producing glass, all the ingredients are mixed and placed in a furnace at a temperature of 1400-1500 degrees C. In this case, the mixture melts, that is, turns into an almost liquid mass, and after cooling, the result is glass.

How are products stored?

We mainly eat natural products. Many of them spoil very quickly because bacteria, light and air have a detrimental effect on them.

Nowadays, most food is vacuum packaged, removing air to prevent spoilage. Other products are protected by a plastic wrap or bag that preserves them. Fresh foods such as meat, fish and fruits should be consumed within one to two days.

There are other ways to preserve food, such as drying and salting. When drying, products are exposed to the sun or placed in a dry place for several weeks. At the same time, the liquid contained in them evaporates and the food does not spoil for a long time. Salting (salting) is based on the use of salt to protect products from the growth of bacteria in them. The refrigerator also helps keep food fresh for several days. Frozen foods are being consumed more and more every day because they can be stored for many months. Preservation methods such as making marmalades and confitures are also very practical.

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