Species ratio gender relations and gender

characteristics

Table 1

Gender relations are embedded in a broad social context and manifest themselves at different levels of society, these are: 1) socially organized relations at the level of society, between representatives of the state and gender groups; 2) relations between different gender groups; 3) relations between subjects of different sexes; 4) the individual’s attitude towards himself as a representative of a certain gender.

The use of the basic ideas of the social constructionist direction in the study of gender allows Firstly, suggest a more active role of the socio-psychological characteristics of a person or group as subjects of multi-level relationships. Gender ideas, stereotypes, attitudes and identity of an individual or group act not only as derivatives and determinants of gender relations, but they can play the role of builders of relations, constructing and creating their specific behavioral models and patterns. Secondly, allows us to highlight the specific grounds for constructing gender relations. Such grounds, characteristic of all levels of gender relations, are: polarization, differentiation of the positions of men and women as representatives of two gender groups, phenomena of inequality, dominance, power, subordination. Since these phenomena are emphasized in the social constructivist paradigm, we can differentiation of roles and statuses men and women and hierarchy, subordination of their positions considered as the main parameters of the analysis of gender relations.

The whole variety of substantive characteristics of intersexual relations can be reduced to two alternative models: partner and dominant-dependent models of relationships. The first model is partnerships– characterized by the focus of the participants in interaction on coordinating each other’s goals, interests and positions. The opposite model is dominant-dependent relationship model– does not imply equality of positions: one side occupies a dominant position, the other - a subordinate, dependent one.

In paragraph 2.3.“Groups of men and women as subjects of gender relations” the psychological characteristics of gender groups as large social groups are described. Based on an analysis of the work of domestic social psychologists - specialists in the field of studying large social groups (Andreeva G.M., 1996; Bogomolova N.N. et al., 2002; Diligensky G.G., 1975) a list of parameters was identified, in accordance with which the characteristics of gender groups were revealed, namely: 1) general characteristics of gender groups; 2) psychological structure of a gender group; 3) the relationship between the psyche of individuals belonging to a gender group and elements of group psychology; 4) characteristics of the position and status of a gender group in society.

The result of the analysis general characteristics gender groups there was a descriptive definition of this socio-psychological phenomenon. Gender groups can be defined as stable socio-psychological communities of people, whose members, realizing themselves as men and women, share and represent norms of gender-specific behavior.

Analysis of literature revealing the psychological structure of the gender group as a large social group, as well as consideration of the issue of the relationship between the psyche of individual members of a gender group and general group socio-psychological characteristics allowed us to conclude that the groups of men and women in psychological makeup, although not identical to each other, are not polar opposites. Their psychological profiles are more similar than different. Gender differences are not as great as is commonly believed (Libin A.V., 1999; Maccoby E.E. & Jacklin C.N., 1974; Deaux K., 1985; Baron R., Richardson D., 1997; Bern S., 2001; Craig G. ., 2000; Hyde J., 1984; Lott B., 1990; Montuori A. A., 1989; Bee H. L. & Mitchel S. K., 1984). Differences between the sexes have been identified in certain verbal and spatial abilities, and research on gender differences in emotions, empathy, aggression, altruism and the ability to influence others has shown that the differences are not stable, as they largely depend on gender norms, prescriptions and social expectations. Based on these data, it is hardly possible to assert the existence of a special male and female psychology; it is more correct from a scientific point of view to speak about the totality of personality qualities (masculinity and femininity) inherent in groups of men and women, and it is necessary to emphasize the fact of the formation of these characteristics in the process of gender socialization of individuals.

For characteristics of the position and status of groups of men and women in society criteria used: position in the income hierarchy and as a consequence, the methods and forms of consumption of available material and social goods (lifestyle) and power(hierarchy of relations of political and economic influence of groups on each other). Use of statistical data given in the works of Sillaste G.G., 2000; Moore S.M., 1999; Aivazova S.G., 2002; Rzhanitsyna L., 1998; Kalabikhina I.E., 1995; Kochkina E.V., 1999, etc., clearly demonstrates that women as a social group do not have equal opportunities with men in realizing their needs and interests in a number of areas of social life; As subjects and objects of gender relations, they are more likely than men to encounter phenomena of discrimination and violence. Comparative data presented social status two social communities - men and women - clearly demonstrate the fact of the lower status of the female group. In accordance with the theory of the social construction of gender, the recognition of the construction of gender as relations of power interaction raises the question of changing this type of relationship.

In paragraph 2.4.“Methods and techniques for researching gender relations” a description of the methods and techniques used in the study of the psychological component of gender relations is provided. The choice of methods was determined by the following conditions: Firstly, Research methods must be adequate to each of the four identified levels of relationships: macro-, meso-, micro, and the level of self-attitude of the individual. Secondly, methods of each level of research should be differentiated into methods of two groups: 1) with the help of which it is possible to study the objective side of the relationship, i.e. diagnose existing practices and relationship models at each level; 2) techniques with which you can study subjective side of gender relations, presented in the determinants of gender relations, i.e. diagnose gender ideas, gender stereotypes, gender attitudes and gender identity of subjects of gender relations.

To study the objective side of gender relations, the following were used: a semi-structured interview “Gender Relations in Russia”, a questionnaire “Qualities of Men and Women”, unfinished sentences “ Gender behavior in conflict", Thomas questionnaire "Type of behavior in conflict", T. Leary questionnaire, Californian personality questionnaire. The subjective component of gender relations was studied using: unfinished sentences “Men and Women”, the “Gender Characteristics” questionnaire, the “Distribution of Family Responsibilities” questionnaire, the “Who Am I?” questionnaire, and the “Life Path and Work” questionnaire. Interviews and open-ended sentence techniques represented a group of qualitative research methods, questionnaires and questionnaires represented a group of quantitative research methods.

The structure of the material presented from chapters 3 to 6 is determined by the concept of research on gender relations, according to which, at each of the four identified levels of analysis, both objective and subjective aspects of the manifestation of gender relations are considered (Tables 2 and 3).

Chapter 3. “Gender relations in the context of the socio-cultural organization of society” is devoted to the study of gender relations between social groups of men and women and society (state).

Paragraph 3.1. “Gender relations in the “group-society” system.”Subjects of gender relations operating at the macro level are, on the one hand, groups of men and women, as large social groups (gender groups), and on the other hand, the state, as a social institution that regulates gender relations at the legislative and executive levels. The manifestation of gender relations on the part of the state is reflected in social policy in relation to gender groups, which is developed by government agencies and set by the dominant gender ideology in society.

On the basis of this policy, relations between the state and each gender group are built. Specifics of manifestation of gender relations finds expression in the social roles of men and women as members of society; these roles are defined as gender.

The objective side of gender relations

table 2

The subjective side of gender relations

Table 3

The main activity in relations at the macro level comes precisely from the state; gender groups and their individual representatives more often occupy the position of objects rather than subjects of these relations. The content of gender relations unfolds against the background of the political and socio-economic context characteristic of a certain period of development of society, and is represented by existing practices of interaction between the state and groups of men and women, as objects of state policy and participants in relations at the macro-social level. Two main types of state gender policy are considered: patriarchal and egalitarian (Aivazova S.G., 2002; Ashvin S., 2000; Khasbulatova O.A., 2001).

This paragraph describes the specifics of the Soviet gender order and the contradictory trends of gender policy in Soviet times, that is, the manifestation of elements of egalitarian and patriarchal ideology at the same time. The phenomenon of the gender contract, as the main forms of manifestation of gender relations(Zdravomyslova E, Temkina A., 1996; Tartakovskaya I.N., 1997; Temkina A.A., Rotkirch A., 2002; Malysheva M., 1996; Meshcherkina E., 1996; Sinelnikov A., 1999). The dominant contract for women in Soviet society was the working mother contract , which predetermined three main social roles of women as members of society: “workers”, “mothers”, “housewives”. The gender contract of the Soviet state with the male part of the country is represented by the contract: “worker - warrior-defender”, which predetermined two main social roles for men: “worker” and “soldier”.

The results of the interview “Gender Relations in Russia” showed that the typical model of gender relations that existed in Soviet Russia corresponds to the theoretical model of “dominant-dependent” relations. In the system of gender relations during the Soviet period, the state occupied a dominant position and played a leading role, and gender groups played a subordinate role. In the post-perestroika period, due to the lack of a clearly formed state policy towards groups of men and women, it is difficult to identify a typical model of gender relations, however, due to the trend of egalitarianization of gender ideology against the backdrop of democratization of public life, we can talk about a trend in the development of gender relations in the direction from “dominant- dependent" model to the "partner" model.

In paragraph 3.2. “The correlation between the types of gender ideas and models of gender relations in the “group-society” system refers to gender ideas as a type of social ideas. To reveal the essence of gender ideas, the theory of social ideas was used, developed by S. Moscovici with the participation of such researchers as J. Abrik, J. Kodol, V. Doise, D. Jodelet.

Gender perceptions– a network of concepts, views, statements and explanations about the social status and position in society of men and women, determined by the social context. Gender ideas, being one of the ways of understanding gender relations, act as determinants of these relations at the macro level; they are designed to orient the behavior of men and women in the system of social relations “a group of men or women - society (state)”. Gender ideas contain characteristics common to social ideas, namely: the presence of images that combine sensual and rational components (“ real woman" and "real man"); connection with cultural symbolism (gender symbolism); the ability to construct the behavior of men and women through normative patterns; the presence of a close connection with the social context, with language and culture. In addition, gender ideas also have specific features: they reflect polarization, differentiation and subordination of “male” and “female” (Shikhirev P., 1999; Modern Philosophical Dictionary, 1998; Voronina O.A., 1998).

Gender ideas are considered as a product of gender ideology dominant in a particular society in a particular historical period. Based on the two types of gender ideology dominant in society (patriarchal and egalitarian), patriarchal (traditional) And egalitarian gender ideas (N.M. Rimashevskaya, N.K. Zakharova, A.I. Posadskaya). The identified typology of gender ideas was confirmed in an empirical study using a semi-structured interview “Gender Relations in Russia”. One of the interview questions was aimed at finding out respondents’ opinions about typical men and women of three periods: pre-perestroika, perestroika and post-perestroika. The responses received from respondents were divided into two groups: traditional and egalitarian ideas. Patriarchal ideas reflect the essence of traditional gender ideology that it is women, regardless of the social situation in the country, who must bear the burden of economic family concerns and be responsible for the well-being of children, i.e. fulfill the roles of mother and housewife. Naturally, the role of the worker was preserved. For a man, the main social roles are non-family roles, although in relation to the family a man must play the role of breadwinner.

Another type of gender ideas was also very widespread, which related to the characteristics of a typical man during the perestroika period and did not fit into the category of either traditional or egalitarian ideas. These are gender ideas about “failed masculinity” Russian men(Tartakovskaya I., 2003). In the system of traditional gender ideology, a man was expected, first of all, to play the role of a defender of the Fatherland and a worker (laborer), while personal ambitions, the desire for leadership, independence and creativity in solving problems were not encouraged, and even extinguished by the collectivist ideology (the desire not to stand out , to be like everyone else). Many men lacked the personality traits and social attitudes necessary for the new social conditions, which is why during the perestroika period many men were unable to fulfill the traditional role of breadwinner. Men had difficulty adapting to the new social situation, which required new content for the social role of the worker.

The obtained empirical results on the relationship between the types of gender ideas and models of gender relations showed that patriarchal (traditional) gender ideas are the determinants of the dominant-dependent model of gender relations.

In Chapter 4. “Gender relations in the system of intergroup interaction” From the perspective of a gender approach, the patterns of formation and manifestation of relations between groups of men and women are considered.

In paragraph 4.1. "Gender relations in intergroup interaction" The content of such approaches to the study of intergroup interaction as: motivational (Z. Freud, A. Adorno), situational (M. Sheriff), cognitive (G. Tedzhfel), activity-based (V.S. Ageev) is considered. The specificity of the socio-psychological analysis of intergroup relations is emphasized, which consists in concentrating attention on the problem of relations that arise in the course of interaction between groups, as an internal, psychological category; in other words, the focus is not so much on intergroup processes and phenomena in themselves, but on the internal reflection of these processes, i.e. cognitive sphere associated with various aspects of intergroup interaction (G.M. Andreeva, V.S. Ageev).

At the level of intergroup interaction, the analysis of gender relations was carried out in the system of relations of groups homogeneous by gender, i.e. subjects of gender relations are a group of men and a group of women. Specifics of manifestations of gender relations on the part of each of the participants in the relationship is set by the general socio-psychological patterns of intergroup interaction and consists in considering the generalized images of men and women that exist in the minds of the subjects of gender relations, as well as in determining the influence of these images on the actual practices of interaction between gender groups.

Analysis of the results of a study of the perception of groups of men and women (V.S. Ageev, H. Goldberg, A.V. Libin, I.S. Kletsina, N.L. Smirnova, J. Williams and D. Best) showed that the characteristics of men and women, as subjects of gender relations, are not only differentiated, but also hierarchically organized, i.e. the characteristics that make up a masculine image are more positive, socially acceptable and encouraged. Based on the phenomenon of in-group favoritism, women should evaluate their group more positively than the group of men. However, the empirical results obtained do not fit into this pattern: both women and men, in the process of intergroup perception, attribute more positive characteristics to representatives of the male group than to representatives of the female group. The reason for this is the difference in the social status of gender groups. In the system of socio-psychological knowledge, the lower social status of women encourages them to manifest the phenomenon of out-group favoritism rather than in-group favoritism. (Dontsov A.I., Stefanenko T.G., 2002). In the system of gender-oriented knowledge, this fact is explained by the influence of patterns that operate not at the level of intergroup interaction, but at the level of functioning of the macrostructure. We are talking about the influence of a special type of cultural traditions - androcentrism 2 (O.A. Voronina, T.A. Klimenkova, K. Gilligan, D. Matsumoto, N. Rees). Under the influence of generalized images of men and women, differing in such characteristics as integrity, unification, stability, conservatism, models of intergender relations are formed.

Forms of manifestation of gender relations in intergroup interaction. ABOUT The peculiarity of the analysis of gender relations at this level is that interacting men and women are considered not as separate individuals and individuals, but as representatives of social (gender) groups. With this type of interaction, individual differences are leveled out, and behavior is unified within a specific gender group. The most common classification of situations where individual differences between interacting subjects are less significant than in interpersonal relationships includes two types of situations: short-term social-situational communication ( social-role) And business interaction (Kunitsyna V.N., Kazarinova N.V., Pogolsha V.M., 2001). A striking example of the manifestation of gender relations in the business sphere is the phenomenon of “horizontal and vertical professional segregation”. The content of this phenomenon was discussed in paragraph 2.3, when the characteristics of the position and status of groups of men and women in society were considered.

Theoretical and empirical study of the problem of gender relations at the level of intergroup interaction allows us to say that in this system of gender relations the main model is dominant-dependent relationship model, and the dominant role is occupied by a group of men. The dominant position of men is most clearly manifested in a situation of conflict, non-personalized inter-gender interaction (the results were obtained in the author’s study using the method of unfinished sentences “Gender Behavior in Conflict” and the Thomas Questionnaire “Type of Behavior in Conflict”).

Paragraph 4.2. “Correlation between types of gender stereotypes and patterns of interaction between gender groups” is devoted to the study of gender stereotypes, which are socio-psychological determinants of intergender relations in intergroup interaction. Gender stereotypes were considered as normative models existing in people's minds regarding the behavior and psychological characteristics of men and women. These simplified and schematic models help a person organize information about men and women not as individuals, but as representatives of large social groups. The typology, characteristics, functions, conditions for the emergence and possibilities of changing gender stereotypes are considered. The characteristics of gender stereotypes (consistency, sketchiness and simplicity, emotional-evaluative loading, stability and rigidity, inaccuracy) were revealed using the works of V.S. Ageev, G.M. Andreeva, A.I. Dontsov, T.G. Stefanenko, I S. Kona, A. V. Libin, D. Matsumoto, I. R. Sushkov, J. Turner, A. Tajfel, K. Deaux, J. Hyde, E. E. Maccoby, C. N. Jacklin and others.

With direct...

These are groups identified by demographic characteristics: gender based (men and women), age - based on age (youth, middle-aged, elderly). The fate of research into the psychology of these groups in social psychology is very different.

Gender groups have a very solid tradition of their study, in particular in American social psychology. The concept itself gender came into use relatively recently. The concept "gender" is used to describe social characteristics of gender, as opposed to biological ones (sex), associated with the characteristics of male and female anatomy.

Sometimes, for brevity, gender is defined as “social sex,” which does not always coincide with a person’s biological sex and assumes that the social characteristics of gender are determined by historical and cultural conditions and do not imply “natural” given roles.

In definition gender characteristics men and women include a set of social roles “prescribed” by society for representatives of one and the other sex.

Gender is studied at three levels: 1) individual(gender identity is studied, i.e. a person’s subjective attribution of himself to a group men - women); 2) structural(the position of men and women in the structure of public institutions is studied: bosses - subordinates); 3) symbolic(the images of a “real man” and a “real woman” are explored).

Gender studies today it is a widely branched network of research carried out by various disciplines, primarily gender sociology. Its subject is the patterns of differentiation of male and female social roles, sexual division of labor, cultural symbols and socio-psychological stereotypes of “masculinity” and “femininity” and their influence on various aspects of social behavior and public life.

However, in recent years, it has acquired independent significance gender psychology, which covers a wide range psychological problems: sex (gender) and the human brain, gender differences in the cognitive sphere, gender and emotions.

In social and psychological research, issues are concentrated around three groups of problems: gender identification, gender stereotypes, gender roles.

The first block of studies reveals the predominant distribution among men and women of specific characteristics, called femininity And masculinity(femininity and masculinity). The origins of this approach are in the popular work of O. Weininger “Sex and Character” (1991), in which it was proposed to interpret the “feminine” as base and unworthy, and the success of women in the social sphere - only as a result of their having a greater share of “masculine” . Later, a number of researchers came out against this interpretation under the influence of the spread of ideas feminism.

Feminism, both as a separate trend in modern humanities in the West, and as a specific social movement that defends the equality of women, and sometimes their superiority over men, has had a great influence on any gender studies in various fields of knowledge, including psychology.

There are many varieties of feminism; some of its extreme manifestations are associated with the idea widespread in the United States political correctness- a ban on any manifestations of disdain for various “minorities”, including women.

Feminist ideas have influenced gender psychology, in particular the study psychological characteristics men and women. The personal characteristics of men and women are considered in relation to the characteristics behavior gender groups. Forms of manifestation characteristic of men and women are described aggression, sexual behavior and, more broadly, behavior in choosing a partner.

Much closer to the study of the psychology of large groups is in social psychology the study of the specifics gender roles. One of the problems here is family roles, and therefore gender psychology intersects with family issues in social psychology. Thus, the features of the socialization of boys and girls are studied, and their specificity in different cultures, the roles of adult men and women in the family, and their psychological pattern also attract the attention of researchers.

Discussing the differences in the social roles of men and women is related to the problem gender stereotypes.

Concerning age groups, then an analysis of their psychological characteristics is usually given in the study of socialization. In traditional approaches to it, processes were described to a greater extent early socialization and in this regard, the characteristics of childhood or adolescence were characterized. Currently, the emphasis has shifted to the analysis of psychology various age groups. Groups also began to appear in studies middle aged, groups old people. This shift in interest is due to social needs: in modern societies, human life expectancy is increasing, the proportion of older people in the population structure is correspondingly increasing, and a very significant special social group is emerging - pensioners.

The directions of research in the field of psychology of age groups are different: in addition to traditional “age” problems (the ratio of a person’s physical and psychological age and the corresponding personality characteristics), problems arise that have a greater “social” dimension. These include: problem generations(borders, relationships), the emergence of specific subcultures(for example, youth), ways adaptation to social change, development of various life strategies etc. In sociology, the concepts of “age status” and the corresponding “age roles”, “age norms”, etc. were introduced. Unfortunately, this issue has not yet received sufficient development in domestic social psychology; only the first studies in this area are appearing.

These are groups distinguished by demographic characteristics: gender - based on sex (men and women), age - based on age (youth, middle-aged people, elderly). Gender groups have a very solid tradition of their study, in particular in American social psychology, where significant attention has always been paid to these large groups. True, it should be noted that the entire block of studies of these groups was not always designated as studies of “gender groups”, but more often appeared as studies of “the psychology of women” or “the psychology of men.” This has its own explanation, which is that the concept itself gender came into use relatively recently.

The concept "gender" is used to describe social characteristics of gender, as opposed to biological ones (sex), associated with the characteristics of male and female anatomy. Sometimes, for brevity, gender is defined as “social sex,” which does not always coincide with a person’s biological sex and assumes that the social characteristics of gender are determined by historical and cultural conditions and do not imply “natural” given roles. The definition of gender characteristics of men and women includes a set of social roles “prescribed” by society for representatives of one and the other sex. Gender is studied at three levels: individual (gender identity is studied, i.e. a person’s subjective attribution of himself to the group of men and women); structural (the position of men and women in the structure of public institutions is studied: bosses - subordinates); symbolic (the images of a “real man” and a “real woman” are explored).

Gender studies today are a widely branched network of research carried out by various disciplines, primarily gender sociology.

The first block of studies reveals the predominant distribution among men and women of specific characteristics, called femininity And masculinity ( femininity and masculinity). The origins of this approach are in the popular work of O. Weininger “Sex and Character”, in which it was proposed to interpret the “feminine” as base and unworthy, and the success of women in the social sphere - only as a result of the presence of a greater share of the “masculine” in them. Later, a number of researchers opposed this interpretation, especially under the influence of the spread of ideas feminism. Feminism, both as a separate trend in modern humanities in the West, and as a specific social movement that defends the equality of women, and sometimes their superiority over men, has had a great influence on any gender studies in various fields of knowledge, including psychology. There are many varieties of feminism; some of its extreme manifestations are associated with the idea widespread in the United States political correctness- a ban on any manifestations of disdain for various “minorities”, including women. Feminist ideas have influenced gender psychology, in particular the study of the psychological characteristics of men and women. A large number of studies reveal such traits as sociability, empathy, aggressiveness, sexual initiative, etc. There are quite heated discussions about whether there is specificity in the distribution of these characteristics, and it is the group of women that primarily becomes the object of attention. The personal characteristics of men and women are considered in connection with the behavioral characteristics of gender groups. The forms of manifestation of aggression, sexual behavior and, more broadly, behavior in choosing a partner, characteristic of men and women, are described. In this case, the “theory of justice” proposed by E. Walster is widely used. Its essence lies in the fact that the criteria for choosing a partner for a man and a woman are different, and they also change historically. The traditional choice for men was determined by the woman’s external attractiveness, her beauty, her health, which corresponded to a cultural tradition called the “gazing culture,” i.e. stimulating shameless “examination” of a woman. However, over time, largely under the influence feminist sentiments, another selection criterion has gained popularity, namely, the choice of “equals,” when the advantage of “women with status” begins to play a large role. Research in this block is not specifically socio-psychological in nature; rather, it is carried out as interdisciplinary.

Much closer to the study of the psychology of large groups is in social psychology the study of the specifics gender roles. One of the problems here is family roles, and therefore gender psychology intersects with family issues in social psychology. Thus, the features of the socialization of boys and girls are studied, and their specificity in different cultures (for example, symbolic definitions of girls as “roots” and boys as “wings”; consideration of the fact of the birth of a girl in some Eastern cultures as a real “trouble”, etc.) . The roles of adult men and women in the family and their psychological patterns also attract the attention of researchers.

Discussing the differences in the social roles of men and women is related to the problem gender stereotypes, the reasons for the formation and consolidation of which are precisely the differences in the distribution of gender roles. The prevalence of stereotypes was revealed in one of the American studies, where the most full list traits characteristic of men (strong, persistent, logical, rational, active, etc.) and women (weak, emotional, compliant, passive, timid, etc.). It is clear that such stereotypes, despite their persistence, are “forced” to change along with the changes taking place in society, especially in connection with the change in the type of employment of modern women. However, when forming the psychological appearance of representatives of gender groups, established stereotypes cannot be discounted: they often act as an obstacle to achieving true equality between men and women in society.

Concerning age groups , then an analysis of their psychological characteristics is usually given in the study of socialization. IN traditional approaches processes were described to a greater extent early socialization and in this regard, the characteristics of childhood or adolescence were characterized. Currently, the emphasis has shifted to the analysis of psychology various age groups. Groups also began to appear in studies middle aged, groups old people. This shift in interest is due to social needs: in modern societies, human life expectancy is increasing, the proportion of older people in the population structure is correspondingly increasing, and a very significant special social group is emerging - pensioners.

Another age group that has received some attention is the youth, in particular the problems of youth subculture. But discussion of this issue is still focused in socialization studies.

All gender stereotypes can be divided into three groups:

First - stereotypes of masculinity/femininity (or femininity). Otherwise they are called stereotypes masculinity/femininity. Let us first consider what the concepts of masculinity (masculinity) and femininity (femininity) mean. (In the following, these two pairs of concepts are used in the text as synonymous: masculinity - masculinity, femininity - femininity). Based on the analysis of the meaning of the term “masculinity” given by I.S. Kon, we can describe the meanings attached to the concepts of femininity and masculinity as follows:

1. The concepts of masculinity and femininity denote mental and behavioral properties and traits that are “objectively inherent” (in the words of I. Kon) to men (masculinity) or women (femininity).

2. The concepts of masculinity and femininity contain different social ideas, opinions, attitudes, etc. about what men and women are like and what qualities are attributed to them.

3. The concepts of masculinity and femininity reflect normative standards ideal man and the ideal woman.

Thus, gender stereotypes of the first group can be defined as stereotypes that characterize men and women with the help of certain personal qualities and socio-psychological properties, and which reflect ideas about masculinity and femininity. For example, women are usually attributed such qualities as passivity, dependence, emotionality, conformity, etc., and men are attributed to activity, independence, competence, aggressiveness, etc. As we see, the qualities of masculinity and femininity have polar poles: activity - passivity, strength - weakness. According to the research of N.A. Nechaeva, the traditional ideal of a woman includes such properties as fidelity, devotion, modesty, gentleness, tenderness, and tolerance.

Second group gender stereotypes are associated with the consolidation of certain social roles in family, professional and other spheres. Women, as a rule, are assigned family roles (mothers, housewives, wives), and men - professional ones. As I.S. Kletsina notes, “men are usually assessed by their professional success, and women by the presence of a family and children.”

Within a particular sphere (for example, family), the set of roles assigned to men and women is different. In the study mentioned above, “The Impact of social factors to understand gender roles”, 300 people from 18 to 60 years old were interviewed, and the following differentiation was revealed in the distribution of family responsibilities between spouses. Thus, the roles associated with cleaning the house, cooking, washing and ironing clothes and washing dishes were noted as purely “feminine”. Men's functions in the family, according to survey participants, are the functions of getting money, doing home repairs, and taking out the trash. More than 90% of all respondents agreed with the statements “A woman’s main calling is to be a good wife and mother” and “A man is the main breadwinner and head of the family,” reflecting traditional ideas about the roles of men and women in the family. Statements from participants in group interviews in the same study demonstrated that women are most often assigned the role of custodian of the family hearth, who, according to respondents, “ensures the integrity of the family” and “maintains a favorable atmosphere in the home.” The man plays the role of “the support of the family,” and this role is rather of a leadership nature: the man in the family is engaged in “setting strategic goals,” “manages,” “indicates,” and, in general, is a “role model.” At the same time, leisure roles are much more often assigned to men than to women (socializing with friends over a glass of beer, relaxing on the couch, watching TV and newspapers, fishing, football, etc.). This was also confirmed by the results of a study of school textbooks, which showed that male characters were depicted in leisure situations significantly more often than female ones.

Third group gender stereotypes reflect differences between men and women in certain types of work. Thus, men are assigned occupations and professions in the instrumental sphere of activity, which, as a rule, are of a creative or constructive nature, and women are assigned to the expressive sphere, characterized by a performing or service character. Therefore, there is a widespread opinion about the existence of so-called “male” and “female” professions.

According to UNESCO, the stereotypical list of male occupations includes the professions of architect, driver, engineer, mechanic, researcher, etc., and female librarians, educators, teachers, telephone operators, secretaries, etc. According to participants in group interviews of my research, among “ "male" professions include a large set of specialties in industrial, technical, construction, military, agricultural and other fields. Women are traditionally assigned to occupations in the fields of education (teacher, educator), medicine (doctor, nurse, midwife), and services (salesperson, maid, waitress). In the scientific field, men's employment is associated with natural, precise, social fields, and women's employment is predominantly associated with the humanities.

Along with such a “horizontal” division of the spheres of labor into male and female, there is also a vertical division, expressed in the fact that leadership positions are overwhelmingly occupied by men, and the positions of women are of a subordinate nature.

The above classification of gender stereotypes is not exhaustive and, being rather conditional in nature, was undertaken for ease of analysis. Of the listed groups of gender stereotypes, the most common and universal are the stereotypes of femininity/masculinity. The stereotypes of the second and third groups are of a more private nature and cover, in most cases, the family or professional sphere. At the same time, the three groups of gender stereotypes described are closely interconnected. Apparently, it is possible to identify other types of gender stereotypes, using different grounds for their classification.

Introduction

The problem of gender stereotyping is one of those that has largely stimulated the development of women's and then gender studies. In justifying the position of the patriarchal nature of society and discrimination against women, advocates of women's equality are faced with the need to answer the question of why this type of injustice does not cause protest, including among the majority of women themselves.

The explanation of this paradox included concepts such as prejudice, prejudice, and stereotypes into feminist discourse. This essay will discuss the main problems of gender stereotyping. What are the factors, mechanisms of gender stereotyping and what are the content, properties, functions of gender stereotypes, their impact on gender relations and social relations in general? Finally, is it possible to talk about the specific features of gender stereotypes?

Note that increased interest in the problem of gender stereotypes emerged in Western sociology in the 70s and continues to this day. This interest is fueled, in addition to the rapid development of gender studies, by the fact that the analysis of gender stereotypes has become a fertile field of research due to their obvious differences from ethnic stereotypes. Work on gender stereotypes in the works of Western, and primarily American, feminist researchers has largely stimulated the further development of stereotype theory.

1. Concept and classification of gender stereotypes

Note that increased interest in the problem of gender stereotypes emerged in Western sociology in the 70s and continues to this day. This interest is fueled, in addition to the rapid development of gender studies, by the fact that the analysis of gender stereotypes has become a fertile field of research due to their obvious differences from ethnic stereotypes. Work on gender stereotypes in the works of Western, and primarily American, feminist researchers has largely stimulated the further development of stereotype theory.

The conceptual framework for the study of gender stereotypes (basic definitions, analysis of the content of stereotypes and mechanisms of stereotyping) is offered in several dozen studies. Let us reveal the very concept of “gender stereotype”, its various definitions, its main types, and the functions of gender stereotypes.

The fact that gender is one of the important categories of human social life is manifested in everyday reality. Members of one gender are subject to a specific set of behavioral norms and expectations that are significantly different from those of the other gender. To do this, special terms and words are used that describe boys and girls, men and women differently. All this is reflected in special forms of manifestation of social consciousness - stereotypes.

Traditionally, under the word stereotypeunderstand a certain scheme (cliché) on the basis of which information is perceived and evaluated. This scheme performs the function of generalizing a certain phenomenon, object or event; with its help, a person acts or makes an assessment automatically, without thinking.

The concept of a social stereotype means a person’s ability to generally evaluate the world and serves as the basis for his inferences and uncritical conclusions. The positive function of social stereotypes is that, acting in conditions of a lack of information, they allow you to quickly respond to ongoing changes and accelerate the process of cognition. However, a social stereotype is not always a reflection of objective reality. Often, stereotypes have a conservative effect, forming erroneous knowledge and ideas in people, which, in turn, negatively affect the processes of interpersonal interaction. Generalizing the characteristics of individuals and extending them to a group of people and phenomena is called stereotyping. According to E. Aronson, “to think stereotypically means to attribute identical characteristics to any person in a group, without paying attention to the real differences between the members of this group.”

We often encounter stereotypes of various kinds in Everyday life, when we characterize a particular person or group of people by some “general” qualities and properties. For example, the judgment that “Norwegians are calm and slow, Italians are expressive and temperamental” is spread due to prevailing opinions about the characteristics of “ national character" Such judgments are called ethnic stereotypes. There are racial stereotypes, stereotypes regarding representatives of certain professional groups, bearers of one or another social status. For example, “people of the upper class are more intelligent than those of the lower class,” or “all doctors are cynics,” and others.

Our goal is to consider stereotypes that reflect generalized judgments about the inherent qualities and properties of men and women, and the differences that exist between them. Such stereotypes can be demonstrated in a very simple way. Think about what associations you have with the word “woman”? And now - with the word “man”? Surely, your answers are close to those obtained in the example below.

As part of the project “The Influence of Social Factors on the Understanding of Gender Roles,” a group interview was conducted to identify opinions about male and female roles. Its participants are residents of Tashkent and Fergana, of both sexes, different ages and different levels of education. To the question “What associations do you have with the words “man” and “woman”?” The following responses were received. The word “woman” was most often associated with home, motherhood, housekeeping, raising children, etc. The concept of “man” in most cases was associated with the functions of family support and financial source, the roles of father, warrior and protector, etc.

The above example demonstrates the manifestation of so-called gender stereotypes, which relate to different perceptions and assessments of the qualities and properties of people based on their belonging to a particular gender.

Let's look at it first concept of gender stereotype. According to the definition of A.V. Merenkova, these are “sustainable programs of perception, goal setting, as well as human behavior, depending on the norms and rules of life of representatives of a certain sex accepted in a given culture.”

Another definition: “Gender stereotypes are ideas about the differences between men and women that are stable for a given society in a given historical period.”

We find another definition from I.S. Kletsina: “Gender stereotypes are understood as standardized ideas about behavior patterns and character traits that correspond to the concepts of “male” and “female”.”

So, the concept of “gender stereotypes” implies, firstly, the qualities and characteristics with which men and women are usually described. Secondly, gender stereotypes contain normative patterns of behavior traditionally attributed to male or female persons. Thirdly, gender stereotypes reflect generalized opinions, judgments, and ideas of people about how men and women differ from each other. And finally, fourthly, gender stereotypes depend on the cultural context and the environment in which they are applied.

social behavior gender life activity

2. Main gender groups of stereotypes

All gender stereotypes can be divided into three groups:

First -stereotypes of masculinity/femininity (or femininity). Otherwise they are called stereotypes masculinity/femininity. Let us first consider what the concepts of masculinity (masculinity) and femininity (femininity) mean. (In the following, these two pairs of concepts are used in the text as synonymous: masculinity - masculinity, femininity - femininity). Based on the analysis of the meaning of the term “masculinity” given by I.S. Kon, we can describe the meanings attached to the concepts of femininity and masculinity as follows:

The concepts of masculinity and femininity denote mental and behavioral properties and traits that are “objectively inherent” (in the words of I. Kon) to men (masculinity) or women (femininity).

The concepts of masculinity and femininity contain different social ideas, opinions, attitudes, etc. about what men and women are like and what qualities are attributed to them.

The concepts of masculinity and femininity reflect the normative standards of the ideal man and the ideal woman.

Thus, gender stereotypes of the first group can be defined as stereotypes that characterize men and women with the help of certain personal qualities and socio-psychological properties, and which reflect ideas about masculinity and femininity. For example, women are usually attributed such qualities as passivity, dependence, emotionality, conformity, etc., and men are attributed to activity, independence, competence, aggressiveness, etc. As we see, the qualities of masculinity and femininity have polar poles: activity - passivity, strength - weakness. According to the research of N.A. Nechaeva, the traditional ideal of a woman includes such properties as fidelity, devotion, modesty, gentleness, tenderness, and tolerance.

Second groupgender stereotypes are associated with the consolidation of certain social roles in family, professional and other spheres. Women, as a rule, are assigned family roles (mothers, housewives, wives), and men - professional ones. As I.S. Kletsina notes, “men are usually assessed by their professional success, and women by the presence of a family and children.”

Within a particular sphere (for example, family), the set of roles assigned to men and women is different. In the above-mentioned study, “The Influence of Social Factors on the Understanding of Gender Roles,” 300 people aged 18 to 60 years were interviewed, and the following differentiation was revealed in the distribution of family responsibilities between spouses. Thus, the roles associated with cleaning the house, cooking, washing and ironing clothes and washing dishes were noted as purely “feminine”. Men's functions in the family, according to survey participants, are the functions of getting money, doing home repairs, and taking out the trash. More than 90% of all respondents agreed with the statements “A woman’s main calling is to be a good wife and mother” and “A man is the main breadwinner and head of the family,” reflecting traditional ideas about the roles of men and women in the family. Statements from participants in group interviews in the same study demonstrated that women are most often assigned the role of custodian of the family hearth, who, according to respondents, “ensures the integrity of the family” and “maintains a favorable atmosphere in the home.” The man plays the role of “the support of the family,” and this role is rather of a leadership nature: the man in the family is engaged in “setting strategic goals,” “manages,” “indicates,” and, in general, is a “role model.” At the same time, leisure roles are much more often assigned to men than to women (socializing with friends over a glass of beer, relaxing on the couch, watching TV and newspapers, fishing, football, etc.). This was also confirmed by the results of a study of school textbooks, which showed that male characters were depicted in leisure situations significantly more often than female ones.

Third groupgender stereotypes reflect differences between men and women in certain types of work. Thus, men are assigned occupations and professions in the instrumental sphere of activity, which, as a rule, are of a creative or constructive nature, and women are assigned to the expressive sphere, characterized by a performing or service character. Therefore, there is a widespread opinion about the existence of so-called “male” and “female” professions.

According to UNESCO, the stereotypical list of male occupations includes the professions of architect, driver, engineer, mechanic, researcher, etc., and female librarians, educators, teachers, telephone operators, secretaries, etc. According to participants in group interviews of my research, among “ "male" professions include a large set of specialties in industrial, technical, construction, military, agricultural and other fields. Women are traditionally assigned to occupations in the fields of education (teacher, educator), medicine (doctor, nurse, midwife), and services (salesperson, maid, waitress). In the scientific field, men's employment is associated with natural, precise, social fields, and women's employment is predominantly associated with the humanities.

Along with such a “horizontal” division of the spheres of labor into male and female, there is also a vertical division, expressed in the fact that leadership positions are overwhelmingly occupied by men, and the positions of women are of a subordinate nature.

The above classification of gender stereotypes is not exhaustive and, being rather conditional in nature, was undertaken for ease of analysis. Of the listed groups of gender stereotypes, the most common and universal are the stereotypes of femininity/masculinity. The stereotypes of the second and third groups are of a more private nature and cover, in most cases, the family or professional sphere. At the same time, the three groups of gender stereotypes described are closely interconnected. Apparently, it is possible to identify other types of gender stereotypes, using different grounds for their classification.

3. Functions of gender stereotypes

Any stereotypes perform certain functions. Let us dwell in more detail on the functions of gender stereotypes. So, gender stereotypes implement the following main functions:

explanatory function

regulatory function,

differentiating function

relay function

protective or exculpatory function.

The explanatory function is the simplest of all those listed; it is used to interpret the behavior of a man or woman using common gender stereotypes about male and female qualities.

The regulatory function is associated with differences observed in the behavior of people of different sexes. For example, foreign researchers have experimentally discovered that people of different sexes behave differently when crossing the road at a red light. Thus, women were less likely to break rules when they were alone on the road, but more often they did it after other violators. This behavior was explained by the fact that women, as a rule, are more “disciplined pedestrians”, and therefore are less likely to violate traffic rules. However, as more “conformal”, i.e. subject to pressure from the group, they may break the rules after someone else. Thus, stereotypically ascribed qualities (in the described case, discipline and conformity) act as unique regulators of behavior.

The differentiating function is a common function of all social stereotypes. With its help, differences between members of the same group are minimized and differences between members of different groups are maximized. If men and women are considered as two social groups with different status positions, then men are usually described as a high-status group and women as a low-status group.

Naturally, the differences between the two groups increase. Thus, high-status men are usually associated with business success and competence, while low-status women are endowed with the qualities of kindness, understanding, and humanity. However, according to some Western authors, “all the positive features female stereotype(warmth, emotional support, compliance, etc.) is only a typical compensation for the lack of achievements in a “power position”17. Thus, the differentiation of men and women often leads to a polarization of the traits attributed to them (for example, the strength of men - the weakness of women). In everyday life, the differentiating function of gender stereotypes is clearly visible in such “products” folk art, like anecdotes, jokes about men and women, grotesquely emphasizing certain differences between the sexes.

They focus on the negative qualities of members of the opposite sex and thus create internal solidarity among same-sex groups.

The relay function reflects the role of institutions and agents of socialization - family, school, peers, literature, art, media, etc. - in the formation, transmission (broadcast), dissemination and consolidation of gender role stereotypes. Through the listed social institutions, society places certain expectations on the individual about how to be and what to do in order to comply with normative ideas about one’s gender. With the help of such expectations-prescriptions, in essence, the “construction of a person’s gender” occurs. The role of socialization agents in the transmission of gender stereotypes is discussed in detail in the topics “Gender Aspects in Education” and “Gender and Family”.

The protective or justificatory function, according to some researchers, is one of the most negative functions of gender stereotypes, associated with an attempt to “justify and defend the existing state of affairs, including actual inequality between the sexes.” With its help, the unequal position of men and women in the family and society can be justified. For example, according to E. Aronson, it is quite convenient to perceive women as “biologically more predisposed to housework if a male-dominated society wants to continue to keep women tied to the vacuum cleaner.”

In the same way, with the help of existing stereotypes about the supposed “natural qualities” of men and women, manifestations of domestic violence and double standards in relation to representatives of different sexes can be explained (and, in fact, justified).

Thus, gender stereotypes perform a number of functions related to the need to explain certain differences between the sexes, represent these differences, and justify their existence. As consequences of categorization (generalization), gender stereotypes shape our expectations regarding the behavior of men and women.

Main directions in the study of gender stereotypes.

Many foreign studies have been devoted to the study of gender stereotypes. At first, they were aimed at studying the phenomenon of stereotyping itself, the forms of manifestation of stereotypes. Later, these studies delved into the search for functioning mechanisms and explanatory schemes on the basis of which this process occurs.

The first studies in this area, conducted in the 1950s, revealed the most typical ideas that men and women have about each other. Thus, the results of the conducted studies showed that a positive male image is usually described in connotations of competence, activity and rationality, and a female one - sociability, warmth and emotional support. Negative male qualities are rudeness, authoritarianism, and in women - passivity, excessive emotionality, etc. These studies, as a rule, were limited to stating the fact of the existence of certain gender stereotypes without any explanation of the reasons for this phenomenon.

Subsequent research in the 1970s was aimed at studying stereotypes regarding the abilities of men and women, manifested in various areas of professional activity. In the experiments conducted, it was recorded that subjects rated the abilities of men higher than the abilities of women. Then attempts were made to explain the identified stereotypes in accordance with attribution theory.

Attribution theory is a theory about how people explain the behavior of others, whether they attribute the cause of actions to the person's internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, attitudes) or to external situations. According to this theory, success or failure in performing any activity is usually associated with two types of factors: stable (expected) or unstable (random) factors. In one experiment conducted by Kay Do and Tim Emsweiler, students of both sexes described a man or woman who had achieved good results. Explaining the reasons for the man’s success, male and female students attributed his achievements to his personal abilities, while the entire group attributed the woman’s success to luck. Thus, men's professional success was most often associated with more stable factors (for example, their qualities or abilities), since men's competence is perceived as an expected factor corresponding to the “masculine” quality of striving for achievement. At the same time, women's successes were explained more by random factors (for example, luck or chance) than by stable factors.

In a study by Shirley Feldman-Summers and Sarah Kiesler, a successful female doctor was perceived by male subjects as less competent, but she was also attributed high achievement motivation. That is, according to the participants in the experiment, the woman doctor achieved success not due to her personal abilities, but due to the fact that she strongly desired success. Negative consequences the effects of gender stereotypes were demonstrated in a study by Kay Do and Janet Taylor. In the experiment they conducted, subjects listened to a recording of an interview with students of both sexes for a prestigious scholarship. At the same time, the subjects rated the man who answered successfully as more competent than the woman who answered just as successfully. However, the same group rated the man who gave weak answers lower in comparison with the applicant with the same weak answers.

Thus, the studies have shown the influence of gender stereotypes on the assessment of people's abilities. Moreover, their negative impact affects the assessment of both female and male abilities. Among equally successful representatives of both sexes, competence is recognized in men, while a woman's success is associated with a high level of motivation or simply luck, but not with her abilities. Moreover, if a woman fails, she is treated more leniently than a man who has not achieved success. The rigidity of gender stereotypes demands that men be successful, while business success is not at all necessary for women. A number of more recent studies have examined the accuracy of gender stereotypes. The main question they posed was how true are gender stereotypes, do they reflect reality objectively enough?

Research conducted by a number of scientists in the 1980s-1890s confirmed the already established fact that the image of a man is most often associated with instrumental traits, while women are attributed the presence of expressive traits. Therefore, although women, with their warmth and openness, are described quite positively, they are presented as less intellectually competent and more passive. Concerns among some researchers that such findings lead to discrimination against women, for example in the workplace, have spurred a series of studies on the accuracy of gender stereotypes.

The questions that most interest researchers in this regard are the following. Are stereotypes an accurate reflection of reality? Do they not transfer the differences identified among the minority onto the majority and thus distort the real state of affairs? The fear of researchers to declare stereotypes reflecting reality, that is, true, was at that time due to the fact that this would provide an opportunity for various kinds of prejudices and discrimination not only by gender, but also by skin color, nationality, etc.

The majority of studies conducted in this area have revealed the inaccuracy of gender stereotypes. At the same time, some data indicated that in gender stereotypes the differences between men and women are overestimated, while others showed that they are underestimated. Sylvia Breuer, in her study of stereotypes regarding the so-called “male” and “female” academic disciplines at the university, used students’ actual grades in certain disciplines, that is, indicators of their performance, as one of the indicators of accuracy. The results of her research showed that the success of female students is often underestimated, especially in those sciences that are traditionally considered male (for example, in mathematics), despite the high grades they actually received in these subjects.

According to a cross-cultural study of gender stereotypes (1982), conducted in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, the stereotype of men was described as more active and stronger than women in all these countries. However, in a later follow-up study (1990), the same authors found that the self-images of boys and girls did not always coincide with these stereotypes, and even if they did, the magnitude of this correspondence was very small.

Since the 1990s, researchers have been interested in studying gender stereotypes in the media, as well as in conducting gender examinations of legislation, school and children's literature. Similar studies are described in the topics “Gender and the Media” and “Practical Aspects of Gender Pedagogy.” The listed areas in the study of gender stereotypes do not cover the entire diversity of research conducted in this area. They only give an idea of ​​the complexity and versatility of the phenomenon being studied. Studying generalized judgments about men and women, the presented studies focus on certain aspects of gender stereotypes, their functions, features of manifestation, correspondence or inconsistency with reality, etc., and much less often on explaining the reasons for their appearance and persistence of existence. One such explanation is the internalization of gender stereotypes during the process of gender socialization.

In Kazakhstan, the number of studies in this area is negligible, since the development of gender studies in Kazakhstan began in the mid-90s. For example, Usacheva N.A (Karaganda) explores the status of women, fate and her image in world culture, Nurtazina N. developed an educational and methodological set for students of higher educational institutions for the course “Introduction to the theory of gender” - “Fundamentals of gender education”, I wanted note the works of Rezvushkina T. “Using the method of semantic differential in the study of gender stereotypes” and Zenkova T.V. “Gender stereotyping on the pages of textbooks” (Pavlodar), research is conducted in different directions: Toktybaeva K. “Proverbs and sayings of the peoples of the world through the prism of gender” , Nurzhanova Z.M. “Nonverbal means of communication: gender aspect” - Nurseitova Kh.Kh. Specifics of communicative behavior of female politicians of Kazakhstan in political discourse (based on media interviews), Zhumagulova B.S. and Toktarova T.Zh.” Some aspects of gender linguistics." etc. There is no serious work on gender stereotypes in Kazakhstan yet.

4. Linguistic study of gender stereotypes

In Russian science, the study of gender stereotypes began relatively recently. Despite a considerable number of very valuable works that touch on this topic, no fundamental works have yet appeared that would consider both the universal mechanisms of gender stereotyping and the specifics of the functioning of gender stereotypes in Russian society.

.1 Reflection of gender stereotypes in the phraseology of the Russian language

Yu. D. Apresyan proposed a scheme for describing the naive picture of a person, reflected in language: Man is conceived in the Russian linguistic picture of the world... first of all, as a dynamic, active being. It performs three different types of actions - physical, intellectual and verbal. On the other hand, it is characterized by certain states - perception, desires, knowledge, opinions, emotions, etc. finally, it reacts in a certain way to external or internal influences (Apresyan, 1995, vol. 2, p. 352). According to Apresyan, the main human systems can be summarized in the following scheme (ibid., pp. 355-356):

) physical perception (vision, hearing, etc.);

) physiological states (hunger, thirst, etc.);

) physiological reactions to external or internal influences (pallor, cold, heat, etc.);

) physical actions and activities (work, walk, draw, etc.);

) emotions (fear, rejoice, love, etc.);

) speech (talking, advising, complaining, praising, scolding, etc.).

In our opinion, this scheme is also applicable to the analysis of femininity and masculinity and makes it possible to trace which of the above nodes schemas that are more associated with masculinity and which are associated with femininity.

Let us now consider the phraseological material from the perspective of Yu. D. Apresyan’s scheme. The basis for the analysis was the Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by A. I. Molotkov (1986), containing more than 4,000 dictionary entries. Some of the analyzed units remained outside its scope. To complete the description (although we, of course, do not pretend to be exhaustive), we also used the section of the monograph by V. N. Telia (1996), dedicated to the reflection of the cultural concept of woman in Russian phraseology. The internal form of phraseological units (PUs) is considered, that is, their figurative motivation, the importance of studying which many authors point out (Teliya, 1996; Stepanov, 1997; Baranov, Dobrovolsky, 1998).

The analyzed material showed the following:

) most phraseological units do not differ by gender; they reflect not the nomination of persons, but the nomination of actions (to fall under the arm). A significant part of them is based on a bodily metaphor (according to Lakoff) - stand on your left foot, get under your arm, fold your head, etc. That is, their internal form is applicable to all persons, regardless of gender. All people can sing praises, scratch their tongues, and not come out with their snout, as the contextual examples contained in the dictionary show;

) some phraseological units apply only to men: the clown of a pea, a knight without fear or reproach, a highwayman, a mouse stallion.

This group also includes units that refer to male or female referents, but have specific prototypes: Methuselah’s years, Cain’s seal - in this case, biblical or literary and historical: Demyan’s ear, Mamai has passed, Malanya’s wedding.

) Units that have only female referents due to the internal form, which refers to the peculiarities of women’s lives: give your hand and heart, life friend, waist in a glass. The same group includes phraseological units to be delivered from a burden, during pregnancy, which nevertheless can be applied to men: Have you defended yourself? - No, but already pregnant

) A group that, in its internal form, can be correlated with male activity, but does not exclude a female referent: rattling weapons, throwing down a glove, with an open visor. A typical example from the dictionary (p. 188): And I knew this before the wedding, I knew that with him I would be a free Cossack - Turgenev, Spring Waters.

) a group where there are paired correspondences: straw widow - straw widower, in the Adam costume - in the Eve costume or in the Adam and Eve costume.

) a group where the internal form refers to a female referent, but the expression itself is applicable to all persons: market woman, muslin young lady, grandmother's tales, but: Christ's bride

In the last group, one can observe mainly negatively connotated naming of women, which allows us to talk about gender asymmetries. However, expressions such as damn / old pepper shaker in relation to a woman are correlated with the male expression old fart (not in the dictionary, but well known to everyone). In general, the issue of predominantly negative connotations in nominations with female referents seems somewhat controversial. Single examples are not indicative in this regard. Large amounts of data should be considered, and not considered in isolation, but in comparison with male nominations. No significant asymmetry was found in the material of the studied dictionary. Along with the expressions damn pepper shaker, blue stocking, muslin young lady, old maid, flutter skirts, market woman, there are also friend/life partner and a number of neutral expressions. Male names also contain both positively and negatively connotated units: highwayman, birch stump, Ivan, who does not remember kinship, the booby of the king of heaven, the clown of a pea, the foal breed (butts) - the stronger sex, the small one, the master of golden hands.

The number of negatively connoted units is higher in both the male and female groups. This fact should be correlated not with the gender of the referent, but with the general pattern of phraseology: there are generally more negatively connoted units throughout the entire phraseological field. In phraseological opposition positive /negative the last member of the opposition is marked, that is, the presence of something positive is considered as the norm and therefore is mentioned much less often.

In addition, as already mentioned, a number of units are equally applicable to both men and women: a steros club, a bump out of the blue, native blood.

Signs of androcentricity include the use of negatively connoted units with a feminine internal form to name men: market woman - and positively connoted units with a masculine internal form: your boyfriend - in relation to women. However, such uses are few.

In group 4), gender asymmetry is manifested in the metaphorization of typically male activities: rattling weapons, keeping gunpowder dry.

Let us add that V. N. Telia (1996) defines a number of basic metaphors for the concept woman in Russian culture:

courageous woman because It is not typical for Russian everyday consciousness to perceive a woman as the weaker sex and contrasting it stronger sex (p. 263);

scandalous creature: market woman;

androcentric gastronomic metaphor: rich, appetizing woman;

condemnation of a woman’s too free behavior: walking around, hanging around her neck, fluttering her skirts. V. N. Telia considers the phraseological phrase “hanging oneself on one’s neck” to be exclusively feminine. A different point of view is presented in the FRS, where there is an example of use in relation to a male referent, the low value of the female mind and female creativity: women's literature, ladies' novel; Along with this, V.N. Telia also notes positive features related to such incarnations of a woman as a bride, Faithful friend and virtuous mother (p.268).

In general, we are of the opinion that the phraseological dictionary under consideration represents very meager material, which is due to:

) by the presence in it mainly of nominations not of persons, but of actions characteristic of all people and often based on bodily metaphor ;

) the predominance in phraseology of negative evaluation, associated not with the gender factor, but with the peculiarity of human conceptualization of reality, when good is the norm and is not always fixed in the language, but bad marked and reflected in language more often as a sign of deviation from the ideal good . Therefore, speaking somewhat conventionally, we can conclude that they are not opposed bad women good men , A bad good within the framework of the universal (cf. Telia, 1996; Arutyunova, 1987).

The dictionary material did not show significant gender asymmetry. Comparing it with the description scheme of Yu. D. Apresyan, it was discovered that physiological reactions and conditions are almost not represented. Most gender-relevant phraseological units represent assessments of moral qualities and behavioral norms, as well as emotional assessment, and partly also activity.

4.2 Reflection of gender stereotypes in the paremiological field

Paremiology was not chosen as a subject of study by chance - it is at the intersection of phraseology and folklore, which makes the study of proverbs and sayings very significant from the position of the modern linguocultural approach. The paremiological fund of the Russian language is an important source of interpretation, since most proverbs are prescriptions-stereotypes of national self-awareness, giving a fairly wide scope for choice for the purpose of self-identification (Telia, 1996, p. 240). Paremiology is indicative from the point of view of cultural stereotypes recorded in the language. The presence of different possibilities for self-identification is undeniable, however, the analysis of a large number of units still allows us to draw a conclusion about the dominant trends and assessments. To identify such trends, we carried out a complete selection from V. Dahl’s Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language (reprint edition of 1978). The dictionary contains about 30 thousand proverbs and sayings. This fairly large array allows us to draw reasonable conclusions.

The choice of the dictionary is also not accidental, since this lexicographical work is a mirror of Russian cultural stereotypes. At the same time, for the purposes of the work, it is not important how frequent a particular proverb or saying is, since the focus is on the cumulative function of language, thanks to which it is possible to observe historically developed GEs. V. Dahl's dictionary was published in 1863 -1866, and the material it contains is even older and reflects mainly a peasant view of the world. The peasantry was, however, the largest social group in Russia, which makes the study of the dictionary justified. Since V. Dahl contains a chronologically distant section of the language, some modern tendencies development of GS.

Principles of selection and classification of material: 1) units that are gender specific were considered, that is, those relating to the social aspects of interaction between men and women. Proverbs like Don't fight with the strong, Don't sue with the rich are not included in the scope of the study, although they can be considered as an expression of androcentricity in the sense that judgments of a universal human nature, where gender does not matter, still feature predominantly men; 2) within the framework of the material under consideration, classification is complicated by the semantic versatility of proverbs and sayings. Thus, the proverb “Beauty takes a closer look, but cabbage soup does not sip” can be attributed to at least two subgroups - Appearance And Thrift . The problem of ambiguous classification has been encountered in a large number of cases. Therefore, a specific semantic area can be outlined quite clearly only at a high level of generalization: a woman's vision of the world - a man's vision of the world. Within each of these areas, different semantic groups are visible, but they cannot be considered definitively defined.

As one of the possible ones, we propose the following scheme, considering proverbs also from the perspective of their internal form. Of the total, about 2,000 units can be called gender-specific; most of them relate to women: woman, wife, girl, bride, mother-in-law, mother-in-law, mother, etc. At the same time, a significant part of the proverbs and sayings of the dictionary do not reflect gender aspects in any way, referring to all people regardless of their gender, for example, you can’t jump above your head. Thus, the gender factor does not occupy a leading position in the general array of Russian proverbs and sayings. When analyzing gender-specific units, it was established:

In addition, in the general body of research material, two phenomena are clearly expressed: androcentricity, that is, a reflection of the male perspective and a reflection of the female worldview.

According to semantic areas, the following groups can be distinguished: marriage - 683 units. (within this group a number of smaller subgroups can also be distinguished: everyday life, economic activity, interdependence of husband and wife, the primacy of the husband, domestic violence, marriage is a responsible matter, evil and good wives, etc.)

Girl, bride - 285

Motherhood - 117 (an introspective look and perspective from outside )

Qualities of a female personality - 297 (character, intelligence, appearance, thriftiness)

Social roles - 175 (mother, wife, bride, mother-in-law, grandmother (midwife), matchmaker, widow, etc.)

Gender-related, but not directly related to the interaction of the sexes Phrase phrases: Who loves the priest, who loves the priest, and who loves the priest’s daughter - 52

Existential contrasts between men and women (that is, not related to social roles, but directly related to gender) - 10

Introspective female picture of the world - 242

A number of smaller groups (see Kirilina, 1997b; Kirilina, 1998b).

In all groups, except for the last and partially the group related to motherhood, the androcentric view dominates, that is, a reflection of the male perspective. Let us now consider these groups.

.3 Androcentricity (male world view)

A man as an addressee or addressee dominates quantitatively: proverbs and sayings reflect a predominantly male picture of the world and male power in it.

Take the first daughter from the family, the second from the sister.

A wife is not glass (you can beat her)

The size of the male space-reality is much larger than the female one. The woman appears primarily as an object.

God will take away the woman, so he will give the girl, expressing the woman’s incomplete membership in the category Human (18 units).

A chicken is not a bird, a woman is not a person

Seven women have half a goat's soul

One can also note the prescriptive nature of the statements addressed to the woman.

Don't bother when there's nothing in the oven

In addition, there is opposition male - female with connotations right - wrong (left).

The husband plows and the wife dances

Don't sing like a rooster to a hen, don't be a woman's man

In this regard, the man is attributed responsibility for the woman’s behavior in accordance with the model: the husband does act n, the wife does act N, where n and N are some negative actions, and N is more intense than n:

You are a span away from your wife, and she is a fathom away from you

The husband for a glass, and the wife for a glass

However, the named model also implies rules of conduct for a man, since the negative actions of the wife are committed under the influence of the bad example set by the husband. Not only the husband’s right to rule is declared, but also his responsibility.

In the context of quantitatively large groups ( Marriage ) moral precepts are addressed not only to women. A large number of units emphasizes the responsibility of the husband and the important role of the wife in the family. Although a woman in several proverbs appears as not quite a person, we found similar statements addressed to men: not married - not a person; single - half a person. Moral instructions are also addressed not only to women, but also to men. A certain, relatively speaking, code of rules for a man is discovered, in which male immorality and sexual promiscuity are harshly condemned: He who has prayer and fasting on his mind, but he has a woman’s tail. We believe, in addition, that proverbs of this type can be very conditionally classified as androcentric, since they do not define a male or female perspective. Such proverbs are not isolated and, in our opinion, reflect a universal human perspective without distinction of gender: You don’t make hay for an army, you don’t give birth to the death of children. Of course, a negative image of a woman is present in the picture of the world painted by Russian paremiology. But there are both feminine and universal perspectives in it, which somewhat balances out the androcentricity. Marriage and family are considered not as an isolated part of society, but in close interaction with other members of the clan. Hence the wide representation of parents, husband and wife, grandparents, godfathers, and matchmakers. In general, a woman’s life is presented in detail and is not limited to activities in the household (although this area is very representative). A large number of proverbs thematize the non-domestic spheres of a woman’s activity - of course, within the limits acceptable for that time: witchcraft, midwifery, divination, as evidenced by the second meaning of the word grandma (midwife, midwife), as well as the verb formed from it womanize (provide obstetric care).

Not only is the wife’s dependence on her husband reflected, but also the opposite: A man without a woman is an orphan more than small children. This is especially true for elderly spouses: Grandfather would fall apart if grandmother did not gird him; Grandma can’t, Grandfather hasn’t gnawed bones for seven years.

In general, the old woman and the widow are given an important place. Widowhood gave women certain advantages, legal rights if they had children. This is reflected in the language in the form of the combination seasoned widow, as well as a number of words and phrases built on the principle of transfer: materat, seasoned wolf.

Against the background of the overall picture, we see a group of proverbs that are not very representative, which emphasize a kind of existential opposition between the sexes, that is, the opposition between men and women without regard to their social functions as wives, husbands, etc. Androcentrism dominates in this group.

At the same time, there is a small group of proverbs (17) reflecting domestic violence (which is also noted by K. Tafel (1997). Sometimes it takes the form of mutual assault: I hit her with a stick, and she me with a rolling pin - which, in addition to the sad fact of domestic violence also indicates that a woman is not considered a weak being. The physical weakness of a woman is practically not reflected in the proverbs we studied. On the contrary, women show their will and determination despite the attempts of men not to give them this will: With a grip, a woman can even take on a bear.

The age of the woman plays an important role: there is a significant number of phraseological units representing a young girl, especially in the role of a bride. Here, in some cases, there is a view of a woman as a sexual object. This group of proverbs is one of the most numerous.

.4 Women's picture of the world

The clearest neutralizing tendency is the presence in Russian paremiology of a clearly distinguishable female voice (about 15% of our sample), reflecting a woman’s life and view of the world, conditions and possibilities for her socialization. In the female picture of the world, the following semantic areas are distinguished (the number of units is indicated in brackets):

Marriage (91).

Family relationships (25).

Motherhood, childbirth and education (31).

Typical activities and self-perception (26).

Manifestation of one's will (18).

The area we called the pseudo-female voice, or the imitation of female speech, which essentially also reflects the androcentricity of language and the stereotypical representation of a woman as an irrational, absurd, short-sighted and generally inferior being (16 units).

Sell ​​your horse and cow, husband, and buy your wife something new.

What I wear to church is what I mix the knead with

In groups 1-6, correspondence to general ideas about female speech is visible: related to the emotional sphere, frequent use of diminutive forms (Homberger, 1993; Zemskaya, Kitaygorodskaya, Rozanova, 1993). Fatality and insecurity dominate. Quantitatively subgroup Marriage surpasses all others. Noteworthy is the predominance in the syntax of the proverbs included in this subgroup of subordinate clauses, expressing a willingness to put up with life’s troubles in the name of partial well-being:

Even though it’s a bit, you’re full.

Even for a bald man, but close.

Although for a beggar, but in Tatishchevo.

The overall picture of marriage is often painted in minor tones: it is perceived as a necessity and the acquisition of at least minimal security, which women do not have outside of marriage:

When you are widowed, then you will remember your husband.

With a husband there is need, without a husband it’s even worse, but a widow and an orphan can even howl like a wolf.

There are significantly fewer proverbs with positive connotations. They emphasize an important aspect for women - security:

Even though my hubby is bad, I’ll fall for him - I’m not afraid of anyone!

God take care of my husband far and wide, and I wouldn’t go beyond the threshold without him.

This subgroup also includes a number of proverbs that have the intent of warning or recommendation:

Get married, keep your eyes peeled.

It's good to look at a handsome person, but it's easy to live with a smart person.

In the subgroup Love, affection states the absolute necessity of having a loved one ( honey ). Only in a number of cases - it is good to live with a loved one in love - is it possible to assume that we are talking about marriage. Proverbs of this type are dominated by readiness for self-sacrifice - For the sake of the dear, don’t feel sorry for yourself; I will sacrifice myself for my dear one - and the strength of emotional ties - If my dear is forgotten, then I will be remembered; The free world is not sweet when there is no dear one.

In the group of proverbs relating to family relationships, a woman plays several social roles: mother, sister, daughter, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, mother-in-law, grandmother/grandmother, godfather. V. N. Telia proposes to consider the concept as a generic concept woman/woman , and all other concepts, including family status, - species (V.N. Telia, 1996, p.261). In our opinion, in the picture of the world created by Russian paremiology, there are two concepts that are not hierarchical in relation to each other - woman/woman And mother .

Concept woman/woman , in a large number of cases it is connotated negatively and is close to the semantic field evil, danger .

This especially applies to the words baba/wife.

Thus, the wife is more often evil than kind (61 and 31 units, respectively):

An evil wife will drive you crazy

The wickedest wife of all is the wickedest

units admit the possibility of the existence of good and evil wives:

A good wife is fun, and a thin one is an evil potion

Androcentric I language endows a woman with a number of prototypical traits that create a negative stereotype:

Weak and illogical mind and infantility in general, being classified as not fully capable persons:

Women's minds ruin houses

The hair is long, but the mind is short

And the woman realizes that she is rocking the child.

About a matter that requires reason, they say It’s not for you to shake a spindle, (implicit the concept women's work does not require intelligence ).

We found 35 proverbs stating the insufficiency of the female mind; 19 proverbs give a positive assessment. Quarrelsomeness and eccentricity as a consequence of illogicality, that is, mental insufficiency, are stated by 66 units. Therefore, despite the presence of statements that highly value the female mind (Kum speaks at random, and godfather - take it into account; A woman’s mind is better than any thoughts), the prototypical feature is still the limitations of female intelligence. This feature is shown by V. N. Telia on the material of phraseological combinations of the Russian language (Telia, 1996, p. 267). In Russian paremiology, this is not just a statement of fact, but often also a prescription: the female mind, even if it exists, is an atypical phenomenon, and, apparently, undesirable:

If you take a smart one, you won’t be able to say a word.

Take the literacy student and start sorting out the holidays

Quarrelsome and unpredictable disposition:

I would drive straight, but my wife is stubborn.

Where there are two women, there is a battle; where there are three, there is sodom.

Danger, deceit:

Don't trust your wife in the yard, and don't trust your horse on the road

The wife pleases and plans wildly.

Talkativeness.

It sweeps with its tongue like bobbins.

The women have only courts and rows.

In this regard, little value is attributed to the process of women's speaking. It is noteworthy that the combination of the words baba/woman and talk is practically never found. Women talk nonsense, lash out, rave, prattle, lie, gossip:

The woman couldn’t resist, she lied!

The godfather went to blow the trumpet around the city

Women and women's activities are contrasted with men and men's activities as right and wrong. Opposition right - left How right and wrong , norm and deviation , characteristic of many cultures, is clearly visible in Russian paremiology. The main theme here is the absurdity, the incorrectness of female behavior:

The husband is at the door, and the wife is in Tver.

The man's mind says: it is necessary; the woman's mind says: I want.

It is noteworthy that the proverbs of this group in most cases express a completely logical intention in the first part and an unsuccessful result in the second:

The woman got along in Ladoga, but ended up in Tikhvin

There is also a model: the man/husband performs action A, the woman/wife performs action B,Where A -important or difficult matter B -

Summarizing the consideration of the material, we can conclude the following:

Androcentricity does exist in Russian paremiology. It is most clearly expressed in proverbs and sayings, reflecting the male view of the world and the primacy of men. However, the image of a woman on the axiological scale is not always connoted negatively. One can speak of a trend rather than a clearly negative attitude. Negative stereotypes-prescriptions in Russian paremiology are proposed for the concept wife/woman , not for concept mother . Clear rejection occurs only in relation to the process of women's speaking. It has almost only negative connotations.

Availability female voice and the female worldview in the picture of the world created by Russian paremiology is undeniable. In our opinion, the picture of the world reflected by women’s linguistic I does not convey natural areas of reality immanent to women, but shows in which areas of public life and social institutions women’s participation was allowed and to what extent. Female voice , in which sadness, the choice of the lesser of two evils, suffering, but also emotionality and humanity predominate, only emphasizes the inconvenience for women of this forced isolation in the narrow sphere of social restrictions. At the same time, there is determination and manifestation of one’s will.

The established facts allow us to conclude that the thesis of feminist linguistics about the androcentricity of any language functioning in a patriarchal or post-patriarchal society is confirmed by the material of the Russian language in terms of its paremiology. However Female voice in it, along with a universal human perspective, it is also not marginal and testifies to a certain independence of women even in such a long period. This fact is confirmed by historical material (Pushkareva, 1989; Man in the Family Circle, 1996; Mikhnevich, 1990/1895). Thus, Mikhnevich shows that even during the period of the Terem culture a peasant woman and, in general, a woman of the lower social class in Rus' was never a prison hermit and lived in completely different living conditions than those, half-monastery and half-harem, in which a Moscow noblewoman or a well-groomed merchant's wife was placed living room hundreds (P.6). Considering the activity of women in the 18th century, Mikhnevich notes their activity as a housewife and landowner, writer and scientist, artist, philanthropist and religious hermit. His conclusions based on linguistic material are confirmed by the study of Demicheva (1996).

Conclusion

So, stereotypes are some ideas about groups, people, events that may contain the truth, or may be incorrect and overly generalized. On the one hand, they simplify the picture of the world and help quickly process incoming information, on the other hand, they can distort reality and lead to erroneous generalizations.

What are the consequences of uncritical assimilation and transmission of gender stereotypes? We can observe the negative impact of gender stereotypes in the family sphere, when the rigidity of social requirements regarding gender roles ascribes to women the responsibility for family, raising children and housekeeping and hinders their professional self-realization. The influence of gender stereotypes in the learning process at school and other educational institutions does not go unnoticed. The negative consequences in this case are the creation of obstacles to the development of the internal potential that each individual is endowed with. Belonging to a certain gender, and not internal motivation, here becomes decisive for the activation and development of certain qualities. At the macro level, the negative manifestation of gender stereotypes is expressed in gender inequality in the economy and employment and in the distribution of social benefits.

The greatest danger of the negative impact of gender stereotypes at various levels of society is the possibility of gender prejudice and sexism arising on their basis. Gender prejudice, defined as unjustifiably negative attitudes towards a group or person based on their gender, contains an element of willingness to act in accordance with established gender stereotypes.

How strong are gender stereotypes in the modern world? In general, the spread of ideas of democracy, feminist and women's movements, as well as the intensification of gender studies in the academic environment, have jointly influenced the weakening of the most rigid prejudices against gender. However, despite the changes taking place, traditional gender stereotypes continue to exist and have a lasting influence. The difficulty of changing old stereotypes is connected, according to A.V. Merenkov, with the “law of conservation of stereotypes”, under the action of which traditional gender stereotypes are reproduced “through such elements of spiritual life as traditions, customs, the education system, and upbringing, even when the material conditions of human life that gave rise to them have already changed significantly.”

The listed “elements of spiritual life” are an integral part of human life in society, therefore it is more appropriate to talk about the weakening of traditional gender stereotypes, rather than about their complete change or destruction. One of the ways to weaken rigid stereotypical attitudes towards gender is to develop tolerance, sensitivity to diversity and otherness in modern society.

Thus, modern young researchers face an extremely difficult task: to study not just gender stereotypes, but the internal mechanisms that give rise to them, the knowledge of which will make it possible, if not to weaken, then to partially “soften” their influence and impact on people’s consciousness and subconsciousness.

From my point of view, this process is long and painful, since the center of gravity of modern values ​​may shift not only for society as a whole, but also for each of its members in particular. At this stage, only the surface layer of this problem will be touched upon; it is necessary to involve in the research not only linguists, but also scientists from other fields - neurolinguistics, psychology, etc.

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