A person in his life is a member of various social groups. Such groups can be family, educational groups, labor collectives, friendly companies, etc. The type of group also dictates the presence of certain social relationships.

Depending on the social sphere where interpersonal relationships are realized A. N. Sukhov, A. A. Derkach distinguish: industrial, everyday, economic, legal, moral, political, religious, aesthetic and other human relations.

1. Industrial relations– develop between employees of organizations when solving production, educational, economic, everyday and other problems and imply fixed rules of behavior of employees in relation to each other. These relationships are shared:

vertically – between managers and subordinates;

horizontally – relationships between employees who have the same status;

on the diagonal - the relationship between the managers of one production unit and ordinary employees of another.

2. Household relations– develop outside of work, on vacation and at home;

3. Economic relations – are implemented in the sphere of production, ownership and consumption, which is a market for material and spiritual products. Here a person plays two interrelated roles - seller and buyer.

4. Legal relations - are fixed by law. They establish the measure of individual freedom as a subject of production, economic, political and other social relations. These relationships, based on legislative rules, carry a great moral burden.

5. Moral relations – are enshrined in relevant rituals, traditions, customs and other forms of organizing people’s lives. These forms contain the moral norm of behavior at the level of existing interpersonal relationships, which stems from the moral self-awareness of a particular community of people.

6. Religious relations reflect the interaction of people that are formed under the influence of the faith and religion that is characteristic of a given society or social group. These relationships grow out of a person’s need for self-knowledge and self-improvement, from the consciousness of the highest meaning of existence, comprehension of one’s connections with the cosmos, and explanation of mysterious phenomena that are not amenable to natural scientific analysis. In these relationships, the irrational principles of the mental reflection of reality, based on feelings, intuition and faith, predominate.

7. Political relations center around the problem of power. The latter automatically leads to the dominance of those who possess it and the subordination of those who lack it. The power intended to organize social relations is realized in the form of leadership functions in communities of people. Its absolutization, as well as its complete absence, are harmful to the livelihoods of communities.

8. Aesthetic relations arise on the basis of the emotional and psychological attractiveness of people to each other and the aesthetic reflection of material objects of the external world. These relationships are characterized by great subjective variability.

Also distinguished formal(official) And informal(unofficial)relationship.

1.formal(official)relationship– normatively provided relationships enshrined in official documents;

2.informal(unofficial)relationship- relationships that actually develop in relationships between people and are manifested in preferences, likes or dislikes, mutual assessments, authority, etc.

V. G. Krysko identifies the following types of interpersonal relationships: acquaintance relationships, friendly, comradely, friendly, love, marital, family, destructive relationships. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, the degree of selectivity in choosing partners, the functions of the relationship.

Interpersonal relationships are based on emotional experiences. As you know from the course general psychology They may be positive, negative And neutral. Consequently, if the classification of interpersonal relationships is based on the form of emotional experiences, then we can talk about positive, negative And neutral interpersonal relationships.

1. Positive interpersonal relationships (“meeting people”).

Love – the most complex type of interpersonal relationships, expressed in a high degree of emotional positive attitude towards an object that stands out among others and is placed at the center of the subject’s life interests. Love can manifest itself in relation to another person as an object of sexual needs (man or woman) and non-sexual needs (love for parents, children, other family members), to inanimate objects and concepts (city, Motherland, art, etc.);

Proximity– a type of interpersonal relationship between two people, expressed in mutually adaptive behavior aimed at achieving mutual satisfaction and a sense of security in their position;

Friendship– these are stable individually selective interpersonal relationships, characterized by mutual affection of the participants, the desire to be in the company of other people, mutual expectations of reciprocal feelings and preference. It is built on mutual understanding, trust, active mutual assistance, mutual interest, sincerity and unselfishness of feelings.

Friendship– unstable, not deep, but friendly relationships;

2. Neutral interpersonal relationships (“from people”).

Autism(alienation) – an individual’s withdrawal from contacts with the surrounding reality and immersion in the world of his own experiences. Observed in mental disorders (schizophrenia) and in cases of severe psychological trauma with a normal psyche;

Indifference– a form of interpersonal relationships, manifested in the failure to provide assistance to victims and those in need. Depends on factors such as:

“Eyewitness effect” – help is provided less often in the presence of eyewitnesses;

Uncertainty of the situation;

Personal unfamiliarity with the victim;

Personal, primarily status, characteristics of the victim - people with high status receive help faster;

Emotional states such as anger, rage, rage, fear, depression, sadness interfere with empathy and helping;

Personality traits.

Conformism – a form of interpersonal relations, manifested in agreement and reconciliation.

Selfishness– a form of interpersonal relationships, manifested in the desire to satisfy one’s needs at the expense of others.

3. Negative interpersonal relationships (“against others”).

Negativism- this is a unique form of interpersonal relationships, manifested in unmotivated, negative behavior that is contrary to requirements and expectations.

Dislike for others– a negative attitude towards people, which can manifest itself in discrimination, racism, etc.

Hatred– a persistent form of interpersonal relationships, manifested in the active negative feeling of the subject, aimed at phenomena that contradict his needs, beliefs, and values.

Aggression – a form of interpersonal relationships manifested in behavior aimed at causing physical or psychological harm, damage to people or their destruction.

Each person is an individual who differs from other individuals in his system of life values, principles, moral principles, outlook on life and priorities. A person is a person only when he lives in society, communicates, meets, gets to know and develops together with other people who surround him. The relationship of a person with other individuals and the ability to read people by non-verbal signs, establish contact with them (some feelings, emotions, arouse interest, etc.) is called interpersonal. In other words, interpersonal relationships are the relationship of one person with another, or with a whole group of people.

Classification of interpersonal relationships

The life of every person is multifaceted, which is why relationships in society are different. Depending on the situation and other numerous factors, interpersonal relationships are classified according to several criteria and divided into the following types of interpersonal relationships:

• formal and informal;
• personal and business (professional);
• emotional and rational (practical);
• parity and subordination.

Before studying each type of relationship in detail, we want to recommend modern techniques for achieving psychology in building relationships in various areas. Having mastered these psychological techniques, you will be able to easily interact with people and build relationships.

Personal relationships

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Personal relationships should also include:

• affection;
• hostility;
• friendship;
• respect;
• contempt;
• sympathy;
• antipathy;
• enmity;
• Love;
• love, etc.

This category of interpersonal connections includes those that develop between individuals outside of their sphere joint activities. For example, a person may be liked as a specialist in his field, but as a person he causes hostility and condemnation from his colleagues. Or, on the contrary, a person is the soul of the company, everyone loves and respects him, but at work he is irresponsible and does not take his responsibilities seriously, for which he causes a wave of indignation among his superiors and the team.

Business relationship

Under business(professional) contacts mean those that develop on the basis of joint activities and professional interests. For example, people work together and their common interest is their work. Students study in the same class - they have a common school curriculum, classmates, teachers and the school as a whole. Such relationships develop regardless of personal interpersonal contacts, that is, you may not even have any contact with the person (not communicate or experience any feelings towards him), but the presence of business connections is not excluded, since these people continue to study or work together. The ability to maintain relationships in stressful situations, when you have to communicate with inadequate people, is especially valued, because none of us is immune from this. There is a wonderful book by Mark Goulston about what to do with inadequate and unbearable people in your life. In it you will find techniques and tips that will help you control communication with inappropriate people and eliminate unnecessary conflicts.

The basis of the business type of relationship is the distribution of responsibilities between each member of the team (working, creative, educational, etc.).

Rational relationships

Rational relationships are built when one of the parties, or both parties, have the goal of extracting a certain benefit from this relationship. The basis of rational connections is common sense and calculation. In this case, you can use various techniques and knowledge. For example, such as storytelling.

Emotional Relationships

Emotional contacts develop in a company or group of people based on the emotions and feelings that they have for each other. Only in rare exceptional cases is there an objective assessment of such relationships. personal qualities, therefore, the emotional and rational relationships of individuals often do not coincide. You can dislike a person, but at the same time be “friends” with him for a certain benefit.

Parity and subordination relationships

Contacts between two or a group of people that are based on the principle of equality are called parity. The complete opposite of these are subordinate communications. They are understood as those in which one party has a higher position, social status, position, as well as more opportunities, rights and powers in relation to the other party. This type of relationship develops between a boss and subordinates, between a teacher and students, parents and children, etc. At the same time, interpersonal contacts within the team (between employees, students, brothers and sisters) are of the parity type.

Formal and informal relationships

Interpersonal relationships can be divided into two types: formal and informal. Formal (official) connections are formed on a legal basis and are regulated by legislation, as well as all kinds of charters, procedures, instructions, decrees, etc. Such relationships are built regardless of personal feelings and emotions. As a rule, such relations are formalized by a contract or agreement in writing as prescribed by law. Formal relationships can be parity (between team members) and subordination (between superiors and subordinates), businesslike and rational.

Informal (unofficial) interpersonal relationships develop without any legal restrictions and on the basis of personal interests and preferences. They can be both rational and emotional, as well as parity, subordination, personal and even business. In essence, formal and informal interpersonal contacts are practically the same as personal and business relationships. But there is a fine line here, which in most cases is difficult to determine, since one type of connection is superimposed on another, a third, and so on. For example, the relationship between a boss and a subordinate. The following types of contacts can occur between them overnight:

• business (employer and employee);
• formal (the employee is obliged to fulfill his job duties, and the employer must pay him for his work, which is regulated by the employment contract);
• subordinate (the employee is subordinate to his employer and is obliged to follow his instructions);
• personal (liking, friendship, sympathy);
• parity (the employer can be a relative or close friend of his employee);
• rational (the employee enters into this relationship for his own benefit - wages);
• emotional (boss good man and the employee really likes it).

All types of personal connections in real life between a specific person and others are closely intertwined, which complicates the process of drawing clear boundaries between them.

Feelings and their role in relationships

Every relationship is built on the basis of certain feelings, which can be both positive (liking) and negative (antipathy). First, feelings and emotions are formed, caused by the external data of a new acquaintance, and only then certain feelings begin to form towards him, his inner essence. Informal relationships between people are often based on feelings that are far from objective. The following factors distort the opinion of one individual about another, which can significantly affect the set of feelings:

• lack of ability to discern the true intentions and motivations of other people;
• inability to objectively and soberly assess the state of affairs and well-being of your interlocutor or just a new acquaintance at the moment of observing his behavior;
• the presence of prejudices and attitudes imposed by oneself or society;
• the presence of stereotypes that prevent one from discerning a person’s true nature (he is a beggar - he is bad, or all women are mercantile, and men are polygamous, and something like that);
• forcing events and the desire to form a final opinion about a person without fully understanding and without knowing what he really is like;
• inability to accept and take into account other people's opinions and reluctance to do this in principle.

Harmonious and healthy interpersonal relationships are built only when each party is able to reciprocate, sympathize, be happy for the other, and empathize. Such contacts between individuals reach the highest forms of development.

Forms of interpersonal relationships

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Whether a person feels sympathy or antipathy towards another person or group of people depends solely on his ability to accept them for who they are and understand their motive and logic.

There are several stages (forms) of the formation of interpersonal contacts:

• Getting to know each other. This stage consists of three levels: 1 – a person recognizes another by sight; 2 – both parties recognize each other and are greeted when they meet; 3 – welcome and have common topics and interests.
• Friendship (showing sympathy on both sides and mutual interest);
• Partnership (business relationships built on the presence of common goals and interests (work, study));
• Friendship;
• Love (is the highest form of interpersonal relationships).

A person is a personality that is born in society. Each society has its own moral principles, certain rules, prejudices and stereotypes. The formation of personality is primarily influenced by the society in which a person lives. How relationships develop in society also depends on this.

Important factors in determining the type of relationship in a company of two or more individuals are not only their belonging to a particular society, but also gender, age, profession, nationality, social status and others. In the same time according to Eric Berne's system, a person in adulthood is able to control the nature of his communication. And this is an interesting psychological development that helps us understand ourselves and others.

The Russian language has the word “attitude”, which comes from the verb “to relate”. This verb implies that one person is taking something to another person.

But what is specific is that we are not talking about a thing that belongs to another person, but about something ideal, about something that can only exist in a person’s mind (in his thoughts, emotions, in his assessments and ideas).

Therefore, if we talk about relationships, we must mean a certain subjective connection that arises in an individual with any external object, be it a thing or another individual.

This is manifested in how the individual reacts emotionally to the object of his relationship, how he categorizes it and what patterns of behavior he develops regarding the object.

A.V. Kirichuk believes that this is an integral system consisting of selective connections of an individual with the surrounding reality. This concept should be understood as those meanings that certain phenomena, objects or people carry for a person. The experience of interacting with an object shapes a person’s attitude towards this object and towards himself.

Interpersonal interactions are those subjective connections that arise and develop between individuals and that influence the ways in which mutual influences are exerted during interactions.

V.N. Kunitsina believes that relationships are connections formed between objects, quantities and actions, as well as the interconnection of various elements of a single system, as well as the interaction of different systems with each other.

By personal relationships she understands the subjective connections that exist between individuals.

V.A. Sosnin understands personal relationships not only as the subjective mutual views of people, which are manifested in the methods of their mutual influences, which turn out to be objects of relations in the process of common activity.

It is also a whole system of expectations, attitudes and stereotypes that people have towards each other. From business relationships, as well as from social ones, interpersonal relationships often become psychological or expressive, since they deeply affect the emotional sphere of consciousness.

E.O. Smirnova believes that interpersonal relationships are not necessarily only dyadic, but they also arise between people united by the ties of one group - for example, between family members, members of a team or group at work.

In such circumstances, these relationships are expressed in the influence they exert on each other during various types of joint activities or communication.

People belonging to different social, economic, ethnic and other groups form interactions in different ways that influence the individual's self-realization and help him discover his individual capabilities.

Basic principles

The relationships that arise between different people during interaction are based on the following principles:

• application of generally accepted moral standards;
• awareness of one's individual personality;
• knowing the personality of another person at the level of empathy;
• accepting that person's identity.

Interpersonal contacts are connections formed between people, and these connections can be either conscious or unconscious. The basis of emerging contacts are the emotions that arise towards one’s partner in the process of joint activity.

Components of interpersonal interactions

Interpersonal relationships consist of three components: there is an informational (cognitive) component, an affective component and a behavioral component.

The presence of an information element implies what a person likes or dislikes in the contacts that have arisen.

The affective element is manifested in the emotions people experience in relation to the relationships that arise.

The emotional component is the main one in interpersonal relationships. It usually includes either positive emotions or negative emotions, as well as various state conflicts, feelings of satisfaction with oneself or a partner, and emotional perceptions of oneself and one's partner.

Manifestations of interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal relationships can manifest themselves in different ways.

Conjunctive emotions can be expressed in a variety of positive ones, and if a person demonstrates them, this indicates his readiness for rapprochement. A neutral attitude towards another individual is manifested in indifferent feelings. This can be noticeable by his indifference, indifference, etc.

If a person expresses his negative emotions in various forms, then this indicates that disjunctive feelings have arisen towards his partner, which demonstrates a reluctance to further get closer and communicate. It often happens that interpersonal relationships are ambivalent, that is, very contradictory.

People tend to engage in interpersonal relationships with those with whom they interact. At the same time, they express conventional emotions and feelings in such a way that this either promotes mutual understanding of communication partners or complicates their interaction.

Moreover, people who belong to different groups based on social, professional or ethnic characteristics use different non-verbal communication techniques.

Behavioral components

As for the behavioral component of the system of interpersonal contacts, it manifests itself in specific human actions. If, for example, a person likes his partner, then this will be expressed in friendly behavior, which will be manifested in the desire to provide help and establish productive interaction. If a person does not like a partner, then this will complicate interaction.

There is a huge variety of interpretations that fall between these two behavioral poles. Representatives of different sociocultural groups display the behavioral factor in different ways.

The main mechanism that shapes interactions between individuals is empathy. Empathy is the mechanism by which people get to know each other and develop relationships with each other.

Ya.A. Kolominsky writes that empathy itself is also a structure consisting of three levels.

The first level of (basic) empathy is cognitive empathy, which involves what a person understands emotional condition his partner, and for this he does not need to change his own state.

Level two empathy is emotional empathy. A person not only understands another, but also empathizes with him, which indicates an empathic response.

Level three empathy is cognitive empathy, which can be considered the highest level. It also includes the other two levels. At this level, a person not only understands the emotions of another, and not only empathizes with him, but also tries to help him in actions. This is how a person performs practical assistance in order to provide support to his partner. All these three levels are closely interconnected.

Thus, interpersonal relationships are the mutual connections that are formed between individuals and which are manifested in the way they influence each other.

It is difficult to imagine humanity without interpersonal relationships. Most people spend most of their adult lives communicating: from the moment we wake up until we go to bed, we are in the company of our family, friends, co-workers, acquaintances and strangers. Individuals enter into one or another form of relationship “face to face”, through the telephone, the Internet, various shapes paper documents. Eliminate all this from our life, and then it can hardly be called human in the full sense of the word. How do interpersonal relationships form and what is meant by this term? Let's try to find answers to these questions.

Definition of Interpersonal Relationships

By the term “interpersonal relationships,” psychologists mean a set of interactions that arise between individuals, are often accompanied by emotional experiences, and in some way convey the state of a person’s inner world.

Interpersonal relationships are based on various types communications that include nonverbal communications, certain appearance, body movements and gestures, spoken language, etc. They combine cognitive, emotional and behavioral components.

The cognitive component means such features of interpersonal relationships as various forms of cognition - representation, imagination, perception, sensation, memory, thinking. All of them allow us to recognize in a person his individual psychological characteristics and achieve understanding, which, in turn, depends on adequacy (how accurately we perceive the psychological portrait of the person with whom we interact) and identification (identifying our personality with the personality of another individual).

The emotional component refers to the experiences that we experience when communicating with certain people. And they can be both positive and negative, that is, in the process of interpersonal relationships one can experience sympathy or antipathy, satisfaction with one’s partner or the results of joint activities, or the lack thereof. We can feel empathy, or an emotional response, to the experiences of another person, which is expressed in empathy, complicity and sympathy.

Finally, the behavioral component characterizes facial expressions, gestures, pantomimes, speech and actions that express the individual's attitude towards other people or the group as a whole. Actually, the behavioral component acts as a regulator of the nature of interpersonal relationships.

Formation of interpersonal relationships

The development of interpersonal relationships is possible only under one condition - if the individual has the ability to establish contacts with people and find a common language with them. This is facilitated by ease and contact, trust and understanding, emotional attraction and acceptance, as well as the absence of a rigid program of manipulation and self-interest.

Interpersonal relationships ideally strive for trust, this includes the expectation of support and confidence that the partner will not betray or use the situation for harm.

In the process of trusting interpersonal communication, relationships deepen and psychological distance decreases. However, trust often develops into gullibility, which is expressed in the fact that an individual unreasonably believes a person’s word, despite pitfalls and disappointments.

Types of interpersonal relationships

There are many different criteria for assessing interpersonal relationships. Their content is determined by the degree of psychological closeness between partners, the assessment of the relationship, the position of dominance, dependence or equality, as well as the degree of familiarity.

From the point of view of purpose, the forms of interaction between individuals can be primary and secondary. The peculiarities of interpersonal relationships of the primary type are that the necessary connections are established between people, as a rule, on their own. Secondary connections arise based on the assistance or function one person performs in relation to another.

By nature, interpersonal relationships are divided into formal and informal. Formal are based on official positions and are regulated by charters, laws and other prescribed rules of interaction that usually have legal basis. Informal ones develop on the basis of personal connections and are not limited by official boundaries.

From the point of view of joint activities, interpersonal relationships are divided into business and personal. In business relationships, work, official or production responsibilities are at the forefront. In the case of personal relationships, relationships not related to joint activities, based on subjectively experienced feelings, come to the fore. These include acquaintance, partnership, friendship and intimate relationships, the degree of trust of which is increasing.

Also, interpersonal relationships can be rational and emotional. In the first case, logic, reason and calculation prevail. In the second - emotions, affection, attractiveness, perception without taking into account objective information about the individual.

From the point of view of the status of people entering into interpersonal relationships, connections between them can be of a subordinate or parity nature. Subordination presupposes inequality, the relationship of leadership and subordination. Parity, on the contrary, is based on the equality of individuals, while the participants in the relationship act as independent individuals.

Interpersonal relationships can bring joy to communication, make life emotionally fulfilling and give peace of mind. On the other hand, they can be frustrating and depressing. How effectively the development of interpersonal relationships will occur in a particular individual depends on his skills in effective communication, the ability to perceive people without prejudice, as well as on psychological and emotional maturity. And if it seems that you are far from acquiring these skills, do not despair, because by showing perseverance and setting a goal, you will be able to develop all the necessary qualities in yourself.

Interpersonal relationships are relationships between individuals. They are often accompanied by emotional experiences and express the inner world of a person.

Interpersonal relationships are divided into the following types:

1) official and unofficial;

2) business and personal;

3) rational and emotional;

4) subordination and parity.

Official (formal) refer to relationships that arise on an official basis and are regulated by statutes, regulations, orders, and laws. These are relationships that have a legal basis. People enter into such relationships because of their position, and not out of personal likes or dislikes for each other. Informal (informal) relationships develop on the basis of personal relationships between people and are not limited to any official framework.

Business relationships arise from people working together. They can be service relationships based on the distribution of responsibilities between members of the organization or production team.

Personal relationships are relationships between people that develop in addition to their joint activities. You can respect or disrespect your colleague, feel sympathy or antipathy for him, be friends with him or be at enmity. Therefore, personal relationships are based on the feelings that people have towards each other. Therefore, personal relationships are subjective. There are relationships of acquaintance, partnership, friendship and intimate relationships. Acquaintance- these are relationships when we know people by name, we can enter into superficial contact with them, talk to them. Partnership- these are closer positive and equal relationships that develop with many people on the basis of common interests and views for the sake of spending leisure time in companies. Friendship- these are even closer selective relationships with people, based on trust, affection, and common interests. Intimate relationships are a type of personal relationship. Intimate relationships are relationships in which another person is entrusted with the most intimate things. These relationships are characterized by closeness, frankness, and affection for each other.

Rational relationships are relationships based on reason and calculation; they are built on the basis of the expected or real benefit from the established relationship. Emotional relationships, on the contrary, are based on emotional perceptions of each other, often without taking into account objective information about the person. Therefore, rational and emotional relationships most often do not coincide. Thus, one can dislike a person, but enter into rational relationships with him for the benefit of a common goal or personal gain.

Subordinate relationships are relationships of leadership and subordination, that is, unequal relationships in which some people have a higher status (position) and more rights than others. This is the relationship between a leader and subordinates. In contrast to this parity relationships mean equality between people. Such people are not subordinate to each other and act as independent individuals.

• 1.6. Types of communication
  There are direct and indirect communication. Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people. Indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, for example, during negotiations between warring parties
• 14.3. Affection and Friendship
  Attachment is a feeling of closeness based on sympathy for someone, mutual attraction to each other. As a result, such people prefer communication with each other to contacts with other people.
• 17.5. Personal characteristics of the teacher that make it difficult to communicate with students
  Such characteristics include hot temper, straightforwardness, harshness, haste, heightened pride, stubbornness, self-confidence, lack of a sense of humor, touchiness, simplicity, slowness, dryness, disorganization. Hot temper and self-confidence are more typical for older teachers
• 1.2. With whom do we communicate, or In what case should we talk about communication?
  When considering the essence of communication, two erroneous, in my opinion, positions are observed: in some cases, some acts of interaction between people are not included in the category of communication, and in other cases they are considered communication
• 8.5. Guilt
  Guilt is a complex psychological phenomenon, closely related to such a moral quality as conscience, and in implicit consciousness is designated as “remorse.” Western psychologists distinguish the state of guilt and the state of guilt. IN
• Commandments of pedagogical communication (according to V. A. Kan-Kalik, 1987)
  The pedagogical process is based on the relationship between the teacher and children; it is these relationships that are primary in pedagogical interaction. When organizing pedagogical communication, one cannot proceed only from pedagogical goals

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